lations, including the greater part of the Pen- | The MS. is in the Bodleian; and it was tateuch, and the books of Joshua, Judges, edited by Dr. White in 1852. In the same Job, Kings, and Esther, were published by Thwaites, from a MS. in the Bodleian, with the title " Heptateuchus, Liber Job," &c., Oxon. 1698.* library is a large manuscript in Anglo-Norman, or English,* containing a metrical summary of the leading events of Bible history, under the quaint name of Sowlehele, "In Latyn tonge Salus Animae." Its date is uncertain, but it may be ascribed to the 13th century. Towards the close of the same century a metrical version of the Psalms was made by an unknown author, and apparently circulated widely, as six copies of it are still extant. In the early part of the following century (cir. 1320) a The existence of so many different translations, made during one. of the darkest periods of our country's history, shows that there must have been some desire on the part of a section of the English people to possess the Holy Scriptures in their own tongue; and that learned ecclesiastics were found willing to gratify them. It does not appear, however, that any of the above translation of the entire Psalter in Latin works had an extensive circulation. Some were evidently prepared for private use; others, perhaps, for a little circle of friends and associates; others for instruction in the public service of the church. To the people at large they were little known, and they had, therefore, little influence on the national mind. It is greatly to be regretted that our knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon translations should still be so very imperfect. No critical examination of the numerous and interesting Manuscripts contained in our public libraries has yet been made. The authorship and age of some of the most important are doubtful. Even over the life of Elfric much obscurity is thrown, owing to his being so generally confounded with Alfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1005. The Preface to Wycliffe's Bible is, upon this department, far too brief, and, in some respects, vague; the notices in the historical account prefixed to Bagster's "Hexapla" are confused, and not always trustworthy; and the works edited by Mr. B. Thorpe are very unsatisfactory. A systematic description of the extant Anglo-Saxon translations, accompanied by a critical collation, is still a felt want in English Biblical Literature. Soon after the Conquest an author called Orme wrote a paraphrase of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles in blank verse, which is now known as "The Ormulum." and English, was written probably by William of Schorham, vicar of Chart-Sutton in Kent. It was intended for church service, as it contains the usual Canticles, with the Te Deum and the Athanasian Creed.‡ In the middle of the 14th century Richard Rolle, better known as the Hermit of Hampole, wrote an English translation of the Book of Psalms with a Commentary. Many manuscript copies of it are in the public libraries of Oxford, Cambridge, and London; and their state proves that the work had not only been widely circulated, but repeatedly and carefully revised.§ In the British Museum and Bodleian Libraries numerous other fragments of English Psalters are preserved of the same or an earlier date. At first the Normans, when consolidating their new conquests, gave little thought to the Bible. Their invasion checked rather than advanced the progress of Scriptural knowledge for a time. But after two centuries of stagnation a revival took place. A spirit of inquiry began to spread among the clergy. Their attention was turned to the Scriptures, and they showed their desire to instruct the people by translating the Lessons ordinarily read in the public services of the Church. Portions of the Gospels of Mark and Luke and of Paul's Epistles also exist in manuscript. But, so far as our researches have gone, it would seem that down to the year 1360, the Psalter was the only book of Scripture . Bod. 779. His Scripture history was published by L'Isle in 1623, entitled "A Saxon Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament; and his other works, + Preface, Wyc." Bible," p. iii. note. It was pubwhich illustrate the history of Holy Scripture dur-lished in Stevenson's " Anglo-Saxon and Early Eng. ing the Anglo-Saxon period, were edited by Mr. B. Thorpe for the Elfric Society (2 vols. London, 1843-46). lish Psalter" (1843). + Ibid., p. iv. § Preface, Wyc. Bible, p. iv. entirely and literally translated into Eng- of their real state. A favourable opportulish. There are some short lessons from nity offered in the scandalous practices of other parts of the Bible correctly rendered, the order of Mendicant Friars, who then but all the longer works are loose para- overran England, perverting the minds of phrases, poems founded on Bible narra- the populace, exciting their fanaticism, and tives, or abridgments of the Sacred text. robbing them of their property. In public None of them were literal versions, and lectures at Oxford Wycliffe openly attacked none of the versions or paraphrases were them, exposing with unsparing eloquence founded on the Hebrew of Greek originals. and withering sarcasm their immorality, The Vulgate version alone was used, and their lies, and their craft. The truth of his most of the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Nor- charges was too evident to be questioned. man translations of the Psalms follow the The eyes of the people were suddenly opened Gallican Psalter. to a system of delusion and extortion. Stung by a sense of their wrongs, they were ready to listen to a remedy. Wycliffe saw the time had arrived for proclaiming a new and great doctrine. He, therefore, declared that the principles of the order of Friars, and of the whole system on which Popish despotism was based, were opposed to the teaching of God as recorded in the Bible. The appeal to the Bible as the sole standard of truth was the inauguration of a new era in England. At that moment Wycliffe laid the foundation of liberty of conscience. Very soon the eyes of the greatest and best in the country were turned to him. A circumstance which then occurred contributed much to aid his work. The Pope demanded of the King payment of the annual tribute formerly given to the Holy See, with all arrears. This was a noble opportunity for Wycliffe. He urged King and Parliament to resist the claim, mainly upon the ground that there was no authority for it in the Bible. The 14th century introduced a new era in Biblical translation. At this time the power of Rome in England was all but supreme. The clergy of every rank and class were devoted subjects of the Pope, and their name was legion. The whole country swarmed with them. They were watchful and energetic. The laws of their Church required them to withhold the Word of God from the laity. According to the Papal system the infallible authority of the Church alone is fit to determine the meaning of Scripture. To exercise private judgment upon it is presumption and rebellion. By maintaining these views with an authority stern, cruel, and uncompromising, Rome attempted to rob England of both patriotism and liberty. The people were taught, under pain of the Church's dread anathema, to bow submissive to a foreign potentate, and, not only so, but to commit mind and conscience alike to his keeping. The first man whose eyes were thoroughly opened to the degradation of his country, and who had the courage to resolve upon her emancipation, was JOHN WYCLIFFE. Wycliffe was born in 1324, in the parish of Wye-cliffe, situated on the banks of the river Wye, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Oxford, having entered Queen's College in 1340, the very year it was founded.* He became Fellow of Merton, and, in 1361, Master of Balliol. In the year 1356 he wrote a tract entitled "Last Age of the Church," in which he laments the decay of religion, the gross ignorance of the people, and the insolence of the clergy. His ardent, thoughtful mind was then turned to the great want of the age- the right means of instructing the masses. He resolved to supply the want by giving them the Word of God in their own tongue. But before doing so the people needed to be roused from the apathy which ignorance had induced; they required to be made conscious But the nation as a. whole was not yet prepared for such a revolution, because to them the Bible was an unknown book. Wycliffe determined to remedy this evil by giving them the Bible in their own language. He began his work at Oxford in 1356, by translating the book of Revelation, to which he added a brief Commentary. Several copies of it are extant in manuscript, and exhibit remarkable variations both in text and commentary, as if there had been a series of thorough revisions. It was followed after an interval by a version of the Gospels, with an exposition, made up chiefly of extracts from the exegetical writings of the Fathers. In 1375 Wycliffe was presented to the living of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire. There, in the old parish church of St. Mary, which still stands, he preached with faithfulness and power the fundamental doctrines of Christianity. A single sentence from one of his sermons will show his views regarding both Church and State at that period: * Preface to Wyo. Bible, p. vili. note. that the ashes of the English heretic should be cast out of consecrated ground. It was thirteen years later ere the decree could be carried into effect. At length, forty-three years after his death, all that remained of Wycliffe was gathered up by impious hands from the cemetery of Lutterworth, burned on the arch of a neighbouring bridge, and the ashes thrown into the river Swift, which, as Fuller says, "conveyed them into the Avon, Avon into the Severn, Severn into the narrow seas, they to the main ocean. And thus the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblem of his doctrine, which now is dispersed all over the world." "All truth is contained in Scripture. We | of Rome followed him to the tomb. In the should admit of no conclusion not approved year 1415, the Council of Constance - the there. There is no court besides the court Council that burned John Huss - decreed of heaven. Though there were an hundred Popes, and though all the friars in the world were turned into Cardinals, yet we could learn more from the Bible than from that vast multitude." In his quiet parish he laboured incessantly at the translation of the Scriptures. He completed the New Testament in 1380. The version was not perfect. It was made from the Latin Vulgate; yet it set forth substantially the fundamental doctrines of Revelation. The printing-press was then unknown. Every copy had to be written by hand. Wycliffe appears to have employed a number of scribes, but they were not able to supply the growing demand. Foxe tells us that some of the yeomen were so anxious to obtain the Word of God, that they often gave a load of hay for a few chapters of St. James or St. Paul. Having completed the New Testament, Wycliffe arranged with his friend Nicholas of Hereford to undertake a translation of the Old Testament. It was at once commenced, but ere it was completed the Romish prelates were informed of the design. Nicholas was suddenly summoned before a synod of preaching friars, held in 1382, and on the 1st of July was excommunicated. He appealed to the Pope; went to Rome; was tried and imprisoned, but soon effected his escape. He does not seem to have returned to England again during the life of Wycliffe. Wycliffe himself, therefore, took up again the work of translation, and had the satisfaction of finishing it before his death in 1384. The manuscript of Nicholas's translation is still extant in the Bodleian Library. It ends at Baruch iii. 20, in the middle of a sentence.* While Wycliffe was engaged in his translation others were prosecuting a similar work in different parts of England. There is a manuscript translation of portions of the Epistles, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Gospel of Matthew, in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.* is in the western dialect. In the same library is a complete version of Paul's Epistles.t The authors are unknown, and probably they concealed their names for the purpose of escaping persecution. It Wycliffe's translation was revised and much improved by others who outlived him, the most celebrated of whom was John Purvey, a clergyman, who officiated as curate at Lutterworth, and lived with Wycliffe during the closing years of his life.‡ It is an interesting fact that Purvey's copy of Wycliffe's original translation of the New Testament is still preserved in the library of Trinity College, Dublin; and attached to it is a Prologue, in Purvey's hand, explaining fully the plan adopted by him in revising the version, and showing that his revision was very thorough.§ Wycliffe's Bible appears to have had a large circulation, considering the character of the times, the difficulty and expense of * MS. 434. Immediately on the issue of his New Testament, Wycliffe was charged with heresy, and cited before an ecclesiastical convention which assembled at Oxford in 1382. The charge in some way failed. It does not appear that any attempt was made to substantiate it. Probably they feared the effects of such a defence as the bold re- † MS. 32. See Preface, Wyc. "Bible," p. xiii. So far as we have been able to ascertain, Purformer would have made; yet he was ban- vey's is the only complete revision; and any student ished from the University. He was after-can see by consulting the work of Forshall and wards summoned to Rome to answer before Madden that there is no ground for the statement of Mr. Froude that it was "tinted more strongly the Pope for crimes laid against him. He with the peculiar opinions of the Lollards."-"Hist. was physically unable, had he even been of England," iii. 77. willing to go. His health was fast failing, and his Heavenly Master soon took him away from a world that was not worthy of him. He died in 1384. Even then his persecutors were not satisfied. The enmity * Preface to Wyc. Bible, p. 1. 1536, with the title, 66 Better be without God's laws than the Pope's." The tutor, turning suddenly upon him with a look of great dignity and determination, replied: "In the name of God, I defy the Pope and all his laws. If God spare my life, ere many years, I will cause the boy that drives the plough to know more of God's law than either you or the Pope."* The tutor was WILLIAM TYNDALE. transcribing, and the intense hostility of the | The conflicting views of the speakers soon clergy. Upwards of one hundred and became apparent. After some sharp. passeventy manuscript copies, more or less sages, the strange priest exclaimed: complete, are still in existence; and the names upon some of them show that they belonged to the highest personages in the land. We find the following, among others: Duke of Gloucester, Henry VI., Richard III., Henry VII., Edward VI., Queen Elizabeth, Bishop Bonner. Besides complete copies of the Bible," the Epistles and Gospels of the Church Service were transcribed separately, so that thus important parts of the version had a wider Tyndale was born at Hunt's Court, circulation, and were made more accessible Gloucestershire, in 1484, or perhaps a few to the humbler classes of the English peo-years earlier. He was a scion of a Baronial ple. family which took its name from ancestral Wycliffe's work was a noble one. His possessions in Tynedale, Northumberland. translation prepared the way for, and gave He entered the University of Oxford at an a distinctive character to, the Reformation early age, and devoted himself to Scriptural in England. The Reformation in other and classical studies, in which he made countries-in Germany, Switzerland, and rapid progress. About the year 1512, † he Scotland, was largely produced and directed removed to Cambridge, attracted apparby men of commanding genius. England ently by the celebrity of Erasmus, who was had no Luther, Calvin, or Knox; its reforma- then Greek Lecturer in that University. tion was mainly the result of the circulation At Cambridge Tyndale began his version of a vernacular Bible. Wycliffe's Bible of the New Testament, probably stimulated was not perfect. He did not translate from the original languages. Probably he had not the qualifications for such a task. The Latin Vulgate was the basis of his version, and it is followed with almost slavish literality, all its corruptions and interpolations being scrupulously retained. The style is rugged and homely; in fact the language in which it is written was yet in its infancy. The version therefore, was not fitted to occupy a permanent place. by Erasmus, whose first edition of the Greek was published in 1516, and immediately imported into England, where it made a profound sensation, especially among the thoughtful youth of the Universities. It would seem, however, that long previous to his acquaintance with Erasmus, and before he met Frith, who was subsequently such a faithful assistant, Tyndale's mind was turned to the translation of the Scriptures. There was recently extant a manuscript containing passages from the New Testament in English, with the date 1502, and signed with the well-known initials W. T. The translation was excellent, and showed an extensive and accurate knowledge of Greek. The manuscript has unfortunately perished, and some able antiquaries now deny its genuineness. In 1523, nearly a century and a half after the publication of Wycliffe's Bible, a small party assembled on a spring evening, in the dining-hall of Sudbury-Manor, near Bristol. It consisted of Sir John Walsh, lord of the manor, his lady, several children, and two priests. One of the priests was a man of distinguished appearance. He was in the prime of life. His forehead was broad, When Tyndale removed to Sudbury he high, and prominent. When at rest, his prosecuted his work with renewed vigour eye was steady and thoughtful; but when until the occurrence of the incident above excited by conversation or controversy, it narrated. Feeling himself no longer safe flashed with extraordinary brilliancy. Com-in the house of Sir John Walsh, he went to pressed lips, and deep lines round the London, hoping to obtain the protection mouth indicated great firmness and decision. and patronage of Bishop Tunstall, who was He occupied the humble place of tutor in an admirer of Erasmus, and to whom he the knight's family. The other priest was was recommended by Sir. H. Guildford. a man of high social standing, and much Protection was refused; but he found a genscholastic learning. During dinner the con- erous friend in Humphrey Munmouth, a versation turned on those theological ques- city merchant, in whose house he resided tions which were then moving England and for a year, labouring, as his kind host afterGermany. The advantages to be gained by Church and nation from the diffusion of Scriptural knowledge were freely canvassed. Foxe, V. p. 117. † Westcott, p. 31. It wards testified, day and night. Tyndale's bat tlements the banner of freedom. Cochcomment on this period of his life is worthy læus had meantime written to England, inof record: - "I found not only that there forming the King, Cardinal Wolsey, and was no room in my Lord of London's pal- the Bishop of Rochester, that the New Tesace to translate the New Testament, but tament was being printed. He minutely also that there was no place to do it in all described the form and character of the England." Munmouth was imprisoned for book, so as to facilitate its seizure at the his generous act of hospitality; but he soon seaports. A few sheets of the quarto ediregained his freedom, and lived to attain tion had been struck off at Cologne. But one of the highest offices in the city. Tyndale now, being informed of what Cochlæus had done, thought it best to delay the issue of this quarto edition, and to publish another which might more easily escape notice. The first complete copy of the New Testament in English was, therefore, printed at Worms, and not at Antwerp, as stated by Mr. Froude and Mr. Smiles. appeared in 1525, in octavo, without note or comment, and was executed in the press of Schöffer, son of the Associate of Faust and Guttenberg, the inventors of printing. The title-page did not give the name of either translator or printer, and with the exception of a brief epistle "To the Reder" at the end, the book contained nothing but the sacred text. Three thousand copies of it were printed; and these were immediately followed by an equal number of the quarto edition, with marginal glosses and a Preface. They were all sent to the coast and shipped to England; but the news had gone before. The Romish hierarchy condemned the book, and all in whose possession it should be found. Not content with this, active emissaries were sent by Cardinal Wolsey to various towns on the coasts of England and Holland, to search out and buy up copies. These were collected and burned in the presence of the Cardinal and his clergy, before the gate of St. Paul's Cathedral, on Sunday, February 11, 1526.† So successful was the work of destruction that, at the present time, of the quarto edition only a fragment is known to exist. It is in the Grenville Collection of the British Museum. Of the octavo edition there are but two copies known, both imperfect; one in the Baptist College, Bristol, complete with the exception of the title-page; the other in the Library of St. Paul's, London. The former was reprinted in 1836, with a valuable Memoir of Tyndale, by G. Offor. It is a literal copy of the original, and has fac-similes of the wood-cuts and ornaments. epistle "To the Reder" is appended, and difficulty of the work, and of the rudeness is very interesting. After speaking of the In 1523, or the beginning of 1524, Tyndale left England and sought an asylum in Hamburg, where he spent a year, and published the first part of the Holy Scriptures ever printed in the English language, the Gospels of Matthew and Mark.* From Hamburg he went to Cologne, then famous for its printing establishments. His translation of the New Testament was now complete. It was entirely his own. There is no evidence that he was assisted by Luther or any other, or that he had even seen the German Reformer, or visited Wittenberg, as affirmed by Froude. † It was made from the original Greek, of which language he - had, during his residence at Oxford and Cambridge, acquired a profound knowledge. At Cologne the work was immediately put to the press, in the printing establishment of P. Quentel. Three thousand copies were to be issued in a quarto form, with notes and marginal glosses. But unfortunately two of the printers were addicted to both wine and controversy. A wily priest called Cochlæus took advantage of their weakness, and joined in their revels for the purpose of worming out of them the secrets of the printing-house. He encouraged the discussion of theology, while he plied them with wine. The printers were Lutherans, and advocated the circulation of the Bible in the language of the people. By skilful management Cochlæus learned from them the startling fact that an English New Testament was in the press. He at once communicated with the authorities, and after some negociation obtained an order to seize Tyndale, Roye his assistant, and all their books and manuscripts. They were, however, apprised of their danger in time, and hastily collecting their precious treasures, they entered a boat, and escaped up the Rhine to Worms. In that city Tyndale was safe. Luther had been there before him; and Protestantism had planted on its They appear to have been printed separately See Anderson's" Annals," i. 51, 153. Mr. Froude says "Tyndal saw Luther, and under his immediate direction translated the Gospels and Epistles while at Wittenberg. Thence he returned to Antwerp," &c. These statements are not borne out by any sufficient evidence, and they are opposed to Tyndale's own express declaration. - Tyndale's 64 Works," ed. Walter, i. p. xxvi,; iii. 147. The Froude, "Hist. of England," ii. 31; Smiles, "The Huguenots," p. 15. The evidence for the facts stated above may be seen in Tyndale's" Works,” i. pp. xxvi -xxx. Anderson's "Annals," i. 45 seq. † Anderson's "Annals," i. p. 106; Foxe. |