Reference has been made in these pages to the occasional want of readiness on the part of English workmen to co-operate with their employers in the adoption of improvements for the saving of labour. The mechanical drill for mining ironstone was instanced as a case in point. It is only right now to mention that a great advance has since been made in the manipulation, at the Cleveland mines, of the machine in question.
Acid and basic processes, cost of, compared, 424; heat required in, compared, 421. (See also basic process and Bessemer, various heads of.)
Acid, carbonic (see carbonic acid). Acid process, sources of heat in. 422. Advantages, comparative, of different iron- making countries, 453. .
Agricola and Dud Dudley, writings of, 12. Agricultural and ironworks labour in Great Britain and America compared, 554. Agricultural labour, cost of, in England and other countries compared, 496; cost of, in France, 496; introduction of new industry, effect on. 476; price of in America and North of England, 553; price of, on Continent of Europe and in Great Britain, 496.
Airdrie splint coal, analysis of, 120. Air, atmospheric effect of temperature and conditions of, on combustion of coke, 238; atmospheric, means of heating, by escaping gases, 251; atmospheric, quan- tity of required for combustion of coke, 264 atmospheric, superheated. effect of application of, to worn-out furnaces, 259. (See also blast.)
Akerman, comparison of coke and charcoal with anthracite by, 290; on working of charcoal furnaces in Sweden by, 276. Alabama, convict and slave labour in, 557;
iron manufacture of, 700.
Alkalies, supposed deoxidation of, in blast furnaces, 214.
Alkaline matter, conditions of increase of, in blast furnace, 224.
Alkaline compounds, possible cause of dif-
ferences in quantities of oxygen and carbon in blast furnace gases, 218. Alumina and lime least affected by sub-
limating influences in blast furnaces, 232. Alumina, effect of presence of, in limestone, 57.
Aluminium, experiments to obtain, by means
of cyanide of potassium, 230; occasional presence of, in pig iron, 167. America, cost of a ton of charcoal in, 54; freight on pig iron to, 604; high transport charges on ore and coal in, 606; import duty and transport charges on pig iron in, 606; imports and exports into values of 1870 to 1881, 604; increase of cost of pig iron in, 606; increased cost
of ore and coal in, 606; iron and steel imports into, 604; iron trade of, 604; ocean freights to and from, 607; sudden demand upon iron resources of, in 1872 and 1873, 605. (See also United States.) American charcoal furnaces compared with Styrian and Swedish. 300.
American experience of relative qualities of hot and cold blast iron, 152. Ammonia and tar, collection of. from blast furnace, 314, 326; condensation of, at coke ovens, by Jameson, 591; condensa- tion of, at Gartsherrie furnaces, 591. (See also coke and coking process.) Ammonia, presence of, in blast furnace, 228; sulphate of, produced in Scotch furnaces, 327.
Ammoniacal compounds, recovery of, in coking process, 52.
Ammoniacal salts, collection of, from Clarence furnace, 326.
Analyses, ammonia salts in blast furnace gases, 228; Bessemer and blast furnace slags, 392; Bessemer and Cleveland pig iron, 388; Bessemer gases in blowing, 390, 392, 418, 419; Bessemer slag, 418, 420; Bessemer steel, 408, 414, 417, 421; Bessemer steel, basic, 408; Black Band, Tuscarawas, 674; boiler-plate made in different kinds of puddling furnaces, 373; Bowling iron before and after refining, 359; Cast iron, 147, 148, 150, 153, 155, 157, 158, 168, 172, 316, 345, 346, 354, 355, 360, 367, 388, 398, 404, 416, 417, 419, 421, 438, 656; after exposure to heat, 159; cast iron, Cleveland, and products therefrom, 398; cast iron during con- version in Bessemer process, 391; cast iron, glazed, 162; cast iron, hæmatite and rails therefrom, 430; cast iron heated in contact with wrought iron, 160; Cinder in Bessemer converter, 392, 394, 418, 420; cinder in boiler-plates, 369; cinder, blast furnace, 168, 170, 392, 394; cinder, blast furnace gases from, 173; cinder, Lancashire hearth, 346; cinder, blast furnace, making ferro-manganese, 166; cinder, blast furnace without lime, 169; cinder, mill, 369; cinder, puddling, 361, 395; cinder, puddled steel, 438; cinders produced at refineries, 359; cinder, purified iron, 404; cinder, refinery, 354,355, 358,359, 361,394, 396; Cleveland
iron blown at Eston, 409; Cleveland pig and refined iron from, 354; coal, 120, 127, 511, 612, 616. 620, 641, 643, 644; of coal, 120, 644, 645; anthracite and bituminous, 127; Lanarkshire, 315; splint and bituminous, 120; coke, 104, 657; coke, by Muck, 105; coke, by Parry, 105; fume, blast furnace, 225, 231, 232; fume, from cinder, 174; gases, Bessemer converter, 390, 392, 418, 419; gases, blast furnace, 68, 73, 102, 107, 108, 110, 114, 142, 196, 200, 204, 208, 210, 214, 227, 292, 293, 308, 309, 317, 318; iron ore, 648, 652, 654, 655, 670, 672, 674, 675, 678, 679, 680; iron rails, 365, 428; malleable iron, 345, 373; materials used in basic process, 419; metal at different stages in acid process, 391; metal at different stages of basic process, 408; metal before and after pu- rification, by Bell, 398; metal before and after purification, by Krupp, 404; open hearth steel, 434, 435; open hearth steel with injected steam, 433; phos- phorus and sulphur in flux, fuel, and ore, 357; phosphorus and sulphur in pig iron and in slag, 165, 357; phosphorus, excessive quantity in steel rails, 428; pig iron, Swedish and English, 346; puddled steel, 438; puddling slags, 395; purified iron, 398, 404; rail steel from Cleveland pig, 427; refined metal, 354, 358, 359, 360; rivet iron, 367; slag from basic blow, 409, 420; slag from Siemen's steel furnaces, 431; slags from basic Bessemer converter, 409, 420; Spiegel iron, 419, 421; steel basic blow, 408; steel rails, acid, 414; steel rails, basic, 414; steel rails with excess of phosphorus, 428; sulphur and phosphorus in flux, fuel, and ore, 165, 357; sulphur and phosphorus in pig and slag, 357; West Yorkshire malleable iron, 434; white iron before and after blowing in basic converter 417 (see pig iron, &c.) Angles of boshes, effect of, 268. Anthracite coal, combinations to keep up prices of, 555; comparison of, with coke and charcoal, 290; composition of, 127; consumption of, compared with charcoal and coke, 130; consumption of, in Ameri- can blast furnaces, 127; cost of, 557; price of, 693; earnings of men at mines of, 557; profit on, 693; sliding scale of wages at mines of, 556; strikes in mines of, 555; suitability of, for iron smelting, 46, 126; tendency to splinter requires correction by strong blast, 127; wages in mines of, 557.
Armstrong, Sir W. G., application of malle-
able iron for ordnance, 27.
Ash, effect of, in blast furnace, 237.
also under heads of analyses, coal and coke.) Atmosphere in Bessemer converter, 392. Austria, cost of a ton of charcoal in, 54; wages paid at ironworks of, 477. Austrian furnaces, low consumption of charcoal in, 274.
Azote in coke, 105. (See also analyses; coal; coke.)
Baker, W. E. S., on costs of iron in East-
ern States, 695; tables of costs of iron, 696; remarks thereon, 698.
Bar iron, cost of producing, in 1727, 350; low hearths first used for manufacture of, 344; waste of pig in manufacture of, 350. (See also heads malleable iron, boiler plates, puddled bar, puddling and puddled iron.)
Basic and acid Bessemer processes, com- parison of, 407.
Basic blow, heat carried off in gases of, 424; heat evolved by different bodies in, 423; loss of iron in, 421; quantity of heat evolved in, 421; temperature of, 424; weight of substances expelled dur- ing, 420.
Basic process, analysis of pig iron and steel of, 417; consumption of materials in, 421; cost of, compared with acid process, 425; effect of silicon in, 416; effect on relative position of certain European countries as steel makers, 705; expulsion of metal- loids in, 420; heat required in, 412; in- convenience of, 411; inexhaustible sup- ply of ores for, 451; in Western Ger- many and Eastern France, 705; order of removal of metalloids in, 408; over- blowing in the, 413; oxidation of iron in, 423; quantity of iron lost in, 411; refractory cinder in, 411; separation of phosphorus by, 4, 413; time required for blowing in, 418; use of white or hard grey iron in, 416. (See also acid process, Bessemer, various heads of steel.
Basic slag, analysis of, 409, 420; oxides of iron in, 418.
Basic steel rails, analyses of, 415.
Beer and butcher meat, cost of, in 1685, 478.
Beer, consumption of, in different coun- tries, 493.
Belgium, coal of, 629; coal working in,
509; competition of, with England, 443; cost of iron in. 688; exports of iron from, 466; import duties of, 465; iron ore of, 659; position of, in reference to iron ore
supplies, 452; progress of iron trade in, 464; transition in iron trade of, 464; weekly expenditure of a family in, 486. Bessemer acid process, weight of sub- stances expelled during, 421.
Bessemer and blast furnace slags, analyses of, 394.
Bessemer and open hearth steel compared, 435.
Bessemer blow, carbonic oxide, &c., in, 390;
gases in (see gases); gases taken at various periods of, 390; oxidising and reducing gases in, 390.
Bessemer Cleveland iron, margin of economy
in use of, compared with Hematite, 406. Bessemer converter, and the puddling fur-
nace compared, 382; atmosphere in, 392. Bessemer iron, fuel consumed in manufac- ture of, 259.
Bessemer pig, impurities contained in, 388. Bessemer process, acid and basic compared,
407; advantages of, over puddling, 384; difficulty of expelling phosphorus by, 383; intense temperature of, 383; use of spiegel and ferro-manganese in, 383; use of Swedish iron for, 383. Bessemer, Sir Henry, invention of pneu- matic process for making steel, by, 19. Bessemer steel, acid process, relative costs of pig iron in Europe for, 704; basic process, relative costs of pig iron in Europe for, 704; cost of production of, compared with open hearth, 432; development of manufacture of, 384; earnings of men at, 573; earnings of workmen at, in Great Britain and Ger- many compared, 535; economic condi- tions of manufacture of, 384; number of men required for manufacture of, in different countries. 573; ores used for manufacture of, 386; production of, in different countries, 453; quality of Bessemer steel, compared with open hearth, 434; statistics of manufacture of, 432; superiority in strength over wrought iron, 385; works in United States, excellent character of, 571. (See also acid process and basic process.) Birkinbine's comparison of charcoal, coke, and anthracite, 290.
Black Band, Tuscarawas Valley, 673. Blair, T. S., direct process of, 34. Blauofen, 11.
Blast, greater weight of, consumed in smaller furnace. 204'; heating of, by escaping gases, 251; heating of, by fire- brick stoves, 234; heat of, as commonly used, 88; heat unit of, may be equiva- lent to heat unit from fuel, 255; hot
and cold compared, 86; increased pres- sure of, in furnaces using anthracite, 92; low temperature of, in Swedish furnaces, 132, 283; number of calories required in, as supplementary to those afforded by coke, 252; saving of fuel by succes sive additions of heat to, 265; super- heated, value of, in worn-out furnaces, 259; temperature of, according to units of coke employed, 252; temperature of, in Vordernberg furnace. 283; tempera- ture of, limit to which it can be raised, 266; units of coke burnt by, and by car- bonic acid in limestone, 107. (See also air, atmospheric.)
Blast furnace, action of, as affected by size, 72; advantages possessed by large, 203; chemical action of, 65; Cleveland and Continent of Europe, wages, &c., at, com- pared, 521; completeness of duly per- formed by, 138; condition of working of, indicated by colour of cinder, 171; conditions under which fuel are burnt in, 140; date of invention of, 12; defective examples of, 263; derangements in, 100; difficulty of proving hydrogen in gases of, 306; dimensions of, in Cleveland, 22; disturbance in composition of gases of, caused by cyanides, 216; driving, effect of varying rates of, 203; earnings in 1870 to 1880, 565; effect of derange- ment of, on cinder, 172; effect of over- burdening of, 172; effect of structural errors in, 202; experiments on, by Ebel- men, Bunsen, and Playfair. 308; extent of reduction performed by H in, 315 fume, description and occurrence of, 174 gases, analysis of, 68; gases in, above the tuyeres, 177; gases, quantities of hydro- gen in, 306; gases, waste of heat by escape of. from throat of furnace, 73; height of, no uniform law for, when smelting ore, 145; hematite, use of raw coal in, 323; imperfect combustion of carbon in, 67; improvements for saving labour at, 525; increased production and its influence on wages at, 521; in- crease of dimensions of, 23; instant decomposition of water in, at hearth, 322; limit of useful extension of size in, 74; men at, cost of living in North of England, 487; mode of action in, 67; nature of process of combustion in, 63; no uniform law for height of, 145; number of men at, different countries compared, 524; reactions in, 186; results obtained by use of raw coal in, 315; Scotch, particulars of working of, 316; sequence of chemical action in, 176; sizes of, required for best results, 202;
small and large compared. 203; slag, ab- sence of lime in, 169; slags, description of, 169; starting-point of iron-making operations, 46; summary of improve- ments in, 24; superiority of over direct process, 61; three functions of, 241; twofold duty of. 65; use of water-gas in the, 337; utilisation of waste gases from, 23; wages at, 520; work, dis- turbing influences of, 259; working average of. 268; work of, 61. (See also atmospheric air, ammonia, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, charcoal, coal, coke, cy- anides, cyanogen, fuel, furnace blast, heat, hot blast, hydrogen compounds, iron stone and iron ores, labour, lime and limestone, metalloids, ore, oxygen, phos- phorus, pig iron, silicon, slag and slags, sulphur, reducing zone, temperature, tuyeres, water gas, white iron, zinc.) Blow, basic process (see basic). Board and lodging, cost of, on Continent and in Great Britain, 489. (See also food, provisions.)
Board in Southern States, cost of, 550. (See also food; provisions.) Boiler-plates, analyses of different varieties
of iron for, 373; cinder in, 369; un- sound welding of, 369.
Boshes, angle of, in blast furnace, 268. Bowling cinders from refinery, analyses of, 359. (See also refinery; refined iron, analyses.)
British Iron Trade Association, publications of, 474.
British made iron, exports to iron-making countries, 469; protective duties levied on, 467.
Bunsen, Ebelmen, and Playfair, experi- ments on blast furnaces by, 308. Butcher meat, cost of, in 1685, 478; cost of, in 1866, 480; in France and Ger- many in 1847, 480. (See also provisions.) Bunsen and Playfair's experiments on blast furnace gases, 308.
Calcination, imperfect, of ironstone, 240; iron ores, change effected by, 56; lime- stone effect of, 58; limestone, want of economy in large furnaces. 60; ores containing carbonic acid, before being used in blast furnace, 56. Calcining kilns used in Cleveland, 56. Calcium found in pig iron, 167. Capacity of furnace, advantage derived from increase in, 247.
Capital attracted to most remunerative trades, 463.
Carbon, action of, on oxide of iron, 197. Carbon and carbonic oxide, temperatures
at which they begin to act on peroxide of iron, 70. Carbon and oxygen, alteration in quantities of, in furnace gases, 214; at different levels of furnace, 212; in furnace, irregularities in quantities of. 208; in gases, alteration of, 215; possible cause of irregularity in quantities of, caused by alkaline compounds, etc., 218. (See also oxygen.)
Carbon and silicon, oxidation of, in Bessemer "blow," 391.
Carbon as an agent for work performed in the blast furnace, 62; as carbonic acid, diminution of, in blast furnace, 214; as carbonic acid, extent of existence of, in furnace gases, 107; ascertainment of, in gases at different levels of the furnace, 208; calories provided in blast furnace by oxidation of, 88; changes caused in condition of, by refinery, 355; character of change in, by long exposure to high temperature, 158; combination of, in iron in cementation process, 160; combina- tion of, in pig iron, 155; combination of iron with, in atmosphere of carbonic oxide, 160; combined, found most largely in white iron, 158; combustion of, 62; combustion of in low fires, 63; condition of, in gases, 270; condition of, in pig iron affected by temperature, 158; consumption of, compared in iron smelting with charcoal and coke, 129; deposited, use of, in protecting masonry of blast furnace, 222; deposition, conditions favourable for, 189; deposition due to action of escaping gases on oxide of iron, 202; deposition of, without formation of metallic iron, 189; derived from coke, fermula for estimation of, 273; derived from fuel, calculated from composition of gases, 269; effect of lowering 6:58 of as CO2, 89; escaping from blast furnace as carbonic acid and loss of heat from diminution in quantity of. 83; excep- tionally low content of, in iron, 157; fixed in coal, duty obtained from, in furnaces using coke and raw coal, 325; fixed in coal, heating power of, 235; fixed in coal, heat obtained from. 236; fixed in coal, loss of in coke-making, extent of, 51; fixed in coal, value of fuel dependent on, 234; gaseous condition not necessary for combining with iron, 160; heat evolved by, in basic process, 418; heat evolved by, limits of, 69; heat evolved by one unit of, in blast furnace, 96; heat evolved by 20 units of, in blast furnace, 195; highest record of, in pig iron at Clarence works, 157; in coke and char-
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