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be perpetual (" immanentes Bewusstsein"); that is to say, ought to reign pre-eminent and undisturbed, with equal power, every moment of our lives. But this it is not found to do in reality, because carnal feelings interrupt the consciousness of God. But instead of concluding hence, that the demand of a perpetual consciousness of God is false and unnatural, this conflict is considered as Original Sin, from which Man must be delivered. The deliverance consists in this; that Man should no longer consider himself as a bodily Individuality, but as a part of the Being of God, which consists in the existence of God in human consciousness. Such a life was seen in Jesus, who sacrificed his Individuality to God, and thus became the God-man and Deliverer. Again the fallacy of this system is, that it passes over the nature of consciousness, brings forward a completely impracticable demand, and interprets the dogmas of the Church in a sense which they will not admit.

Whilst, however, philosophy exerted her influence more on the elements of Christian and Church dogmas, the other sciences, particularly historical criticism, the natural sciences, and the knowledge of languages and antiquity, were powerful agents in the elucidation and use of the source of all knowledge of Christian Theology; the Holy Scriptures. Not only was the early notion, (as unfounded as it is untenable) of the Inspiration of the Bible, rejected, but close researches were instituted into the authenticity and credibility of its different parts; in consequence of which many of the earlier views of them were entirely reversed.

The science thus formed, and called "Introduction to the Holy Scriptures," was particularly and meritoriously cultivated by Eichhorn, Michaelis, Berthold, De Wette, and others; not to mention the extensive and learned researches into the origin and authenticity of particular biblical writings, such as those of Moses and the Evangelists. Yet more important to Christian Theology was the application of historical criticism to the biblical accounts of past occurrences, in which the endeavours became remarkable, either to render doubtful the miracles related in the Bible, as by the English, French, and German Freethinkers of the eighteenth century, or to explain them away in a natural manner, often very clumsily, and by very forced interpretations, or to represent them as Myths, i. e. Popular Traditions, written down at a late period, which had gradually assumed a miraculous clothing. The latter view was brought into notice particularly, in a scientific manner, by Eichhorn, Gabler, Krug, and Bauer. It has been recently carried to its highest pitch by Strauss, in his "Life of Jesus;" and, were it true, would preVOL. III. No. 12.-New Series.

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sent to us a much greater miracle, viz., how, if Jesus were only a common Rabbi, his life could yet have produced so extraordinary an effect on the world as it assuredly has done, according to the facts of history. But the science of Languages and Antiquity first gave fixed rules for the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, as sources of the knowledge of Christian Theology. Until the time of the Reformation, no exegetical Theology existed as a Science, but caprice and allegorical explanation prevailed. The latter was rejected by the Reformers, and they urged the literal sense, though without scientifically defining the principles of interpretation. For the slight inquiries which Karlstadt and afterwards Flacius made on the subject, were soon forgotten amid the fierce conflicts of dogmatism. Indeed the Reformers followed far too often a purely theological explanation, i.e. they took the words of the Bible exactly in the sense in which the Church had already dogmatically settled them. J. A. Ernesti, in his "Interpres Novi Test." (Leipzig, 1761,) first laid down the principle that in the explanation of the Bible, the same rules must come into force, which would be used in the explanation of any profane historian; for instance, a regard to the peculiar idioms of the language, the history and mode of thinking of the times,— parallel passages, and the context. For the researches into the language of the Old Testament, Michaelis, Eichhorn, Gesenius, Hartmann, and Ewald particularly deserve notice: for those into the language of the New Testament, the modern philological school is meritorious; for instance, Winer, who first laboured at the Grammar of the New Testament; Fritsche, and Schulz; and the lexicographers of the New Testament, Bretschneider and Wahl. On the other hand, the party who again defended the Church Dogmas, renewed the ancient theological interpretation, under the guise of a deeper, or theological meaning of Scripture.

Lastly; As to the second great division of Christian Theology, that of PRACTICAL THEOLOGY or MORALITY. We may observe that it has undergone much fewer changes in its essentials, than the theoretical part. For the doctrine of individual duties has remained almost always the same; and only the views of the Moral Condition of Man, Salvation, and the means of attaining thereto, as also the general position from which men have endeavoured to deduce philosophically particular duties, have assumed different forms at different times: the former chiefly according to the principles of the prevailing dogmas, the latter according to the existing philosophy. The Bible contains only separate moral precepts, not a system of morality, at which, indeed, no one arrived until the times of the scholastics.

But the general views of Morality were early disturbed and obscured by ASCETICISM, which arose out of the false views entertained by the philosophers of the first century of the immorality of natural inclinations, and which was exhibited in the monastic life; and by the disciplinarian laws, the penances and indulgences of the Church: and thus Christian Morality was led into false and narrow-minded paths. This false direction of Morality continued even when it was cultivated scientifically by the scholastics of the twelfth and succeeding centuries,-Petrus Lombardus, Alexander Hales, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventura. Nay, it soon merged into a useless dialectic casuistry. In the (Roman) Catholic Church, it was no better, even after the Reformation, for the Mystics and Jesuits both made use of it; the former in support of their fanaticism, the latter of their casuistry; and these even taught a most dangerous system of "Probabilities," and degraded morality into a doctrine of prudence and adroitness. On the other hand, Morality has lately found worthy advocates in the (Roman) Catholic Church, in Wanker, Isenbiehl, Mutschelle, Geishüttner, and others. The Reformers were too deeply engaged in dogmatical and ecclesiastically-political strife to be able to apply their talents to the subject of Morality. Luther and Calvin themselves were too much attached to the representations of Augustine to be able to give to the moral nature of Man its honour due. Melancthon certainly did write in 1550, a work expressly on Christian Ethics; but it was too much after the system of Aristotle, and was soon forgotten. For a long time morality was treated merely as a kind of appendage to Dogmatics, until the Hollander Lambertus Danäus, and the German George Calixt, (1634,) again raised it to a distinct Science, and since that time the field has had many labourers. The works on Christian Morality of Baumgarten, Buddeus, Mosheim, Reinhard, Stäudlin, De Wette, and Ammon, particularly deserve notice. As the Pietists (Andreä, Arndt, Spener, Arnold, and Zinzendorf,) gave it more the narrowminded direction of the earlier Asceticism, others, on the contrary, followed, in their general views and fundamental principles of Morality, the bent of the philosophical systems which they professed: thus Buddeus, Mosheim, Döderlein, Reinhard, and others followed the eclectic school; Less, Bahrdt, and Michaelis followed Eudæmonism; Stäudlin, Schmid, Ammon, and others, the system of Kant; and De Wette the philosophy of Fries.

ART. II.-ON THE HOLY PLAYS OR MYSTERIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES, with an account of a Sacred Drama which was performed in the year 1840 at Oberammergau in Upper Bavaria.

TRAGEDY is defined by Aristotle to be the representation of solemn and important transactions, conveyed in measured language with rhythm and harmony, by action, and not simple narration, exciting pity or dismay, so as to purify and temper the passions of the human breast.

Such in the days of this great critic was the office of the buskined Muse-and truly marvellous were its effects. Nothing could exceed the intense interest excited by the representation of the Eumenides or the Agamemnon of Eschylus, or of the Edipus at Colonos of Sophocles; and it is said by Lucian*, that when the Andromeda of Euripides was performed at Abdera under the reign of Lysimachus, the audience went from the Theatre horror-struck, fevered, and, as it were, possessed; and that this mania became a sort of Epidemic throughout the city. The laws of Greek tragedy-so essentially differing from those of the modern Drama-were in strict conformity with Aristotle's definition above-quoted. The Chorus, which in our view constitutes its most distinguishing characteristic, so far from being an adjunct, had been in fact its germ and origin, and ever after continued to give it pith and substance. Through the Chorus, not only was expression stamped upon the forms which imagination bodied forth-but unknown or obscure facts were developed, and utterance was given to the most sublime precepts of morals and philosophy. Unnatural as its introduction would now appear, it was unquestionably suited to the genius and circumstances of the people among whom it originated-and in the course of this memoir, an example will be given of its advantageous introduction even in our own days. After the death of the great Athenian Triumvirate, the dramatic performances of Greece continued to be conducted upon the same model; and the Romans in succeeding ages-though not inheriting the genius, adopted the technical rules and arrangements of their great Masters. The only Latin tragedies that have descended entire to our times are those which go under the name of Seneca-and in them is exhibited the same general plan which had been adopted by the writers of Athenian tragedy. After the division and decline of

Lucian-Quomodo historia conscribenda sit.

the Roman Empire, the Greek drama continued to flourish in Byzantium, the Eastern Capital; but in the fourth century Gregory Nazianzen, a father of the Christian Church, was mainly instrumental in banishing Pagan Plays, and introducing upon the stage Sacred Dramas constructed upon the same model, but having their subjects selected from the Old and New Testament. One tragedy, "the passion of Christ," (Xplorоç Taσxwv) remains out of many composed by him; and its Prologue sets forth that the Virgin Mary was therein for the first time introduced upon the stage, and that the piece was got up in imitation of Euripides. At this period indeed, it became customary to compose Christian imitations or parodies of the Greek classics in various departments of the Belles Lettres, to be read and taught in schools-and this fashion began to prevail in Italy. But the genius of Italy, obscured by barbarian ignorance and oppression, emitted for many ages no cheering gleam of light. The Church became the only depository of learning. There, on solemn festivals, were performed a species of dramatic exhibition called "Mysteries," or "Miracles," representing the most important passages in the Old and New Testament, and in the lives of the saints. At first they appear to have been little more than Dumb Shows, enlivened with a few short Speeches, and addressed by way of explanation to the unlearned auditors; but afterwards they were enlarged into the form of Dialogue, when some division took place into Acts and Scenes. In the hands of the Priests, however, the buskined Muse appeared to little advantage, being tricked out at one time for purposes of deception, at another of extortion. Scriptural representations, which should have inspired dutiful reverence to God, and gratitude to the Redeemer, were accompanied in many instances with frivolity and gross obscenities, and thus became productive only of contempt and ridicule. In proof of this, the following extract shall be taken from an ancient Novel, often quoted by our old dramatic Poets, entitled "A Merye Jest of a man that was called Howleglas," being a translation from the Dutch language, in which he is named Ulenspiegle. Howleglas, whose waggish tricks are the subject of this book, after many adventures, comes to live with a priest, who makes him his Parish clerk. This priest is described as keeping a leman or concubine, who had but one eye, to whom Howleglas owed a grudge for revealing his rogueries to his Master. The story thus proceeds :

And than in the meane season, while Howleglas was parysh clarke, at

Imprinted by Wm. Copland; without date, in 4to. bl. let. among Mr. Garrick's Old Plays, vol. x.

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