:

which they are not entitled to receive gratuitously; and with respect to the application of the moneys to be derived from those sources, and of moneys paid out of the income of the foundation on account of the instruction of boys on the foundation (4) With respect to attendance at divine service, and, where the school has a chapel of its own, with respect to the chapel service and services: (5.) With respect to the times and length of the holidays: (6.) With respect to the subjects of study, and the general discipline and management of the school: (7.) With respect to the general disposal (otherwise than by way of mortgage or alienation) of any surplus income belonging to the school in such manner as may, in the opinion of the governing body, best promote the efficiency of the school as a place of education."

The constitution of the governing bodies is somewhat different in the different schools. That of Eton is as follows::

"The governing body shall consist of a provost and fourteen fellows, of whom nine shall be honorary and five stipendiary. The provost and fellows shall all be members of the Established Church, but not necessarily have been educated at Eton.

"The provost shall be nominated by the crown, and be a graduate of Oxford or Cambridge, of the degree of M.A. or some higher degree, thirty-five years old at the least, but not necessarily in holy orders. He shall have an annual stipend of £2000, and the house which is now assigned to the provost.

"The provost of King's College, Cambridge, for the time being, shall, immediately on the passing of this Act, become by virtue of his office an honorary Fellow of Eton College. The eight other Honorary Fellows shall be persons qualified by position or attainments to fill that situation with advantage to the school, but they shall be entitled to no emoluments, and shall not be required to reside. Three of them shall be nominated by the crown, and shall be graduates of Oxford or Cambridge, and the other five shall be elected by the governing body.

"The five stipendiary fellows shall be elected by the governing body. Every person so elected shall either be distinguished for literary or scientific attainments, or have done long and eminent service to the school as head master, lower master,

or assistant master. Three at least of the stipendiary fellows shall be in holy orders, and each of the stipendiary fellows shall have a fixed stipend of £700 per annum, and a house or lodgings within the college.

"Unless prevented by sickness or some other urgent cause allowed by the governing body, the provost shall reside at Eton during the whole of every school term, and each of the stipendiary fellows during three months in every year.

"A vacancy in the office of a nominee honorary fellow shall be filled up by Her Majesty, and a vacancy in the office of an elective honorary fellow be filled up by the election of the governing body.

"The offices of provost and stipendiary fellows shall be deemed to be duly filled up by the existing provost and fellows, and no vacancy shall be deemed to occur in the office of stipendiary fellow until the number of stipendiary fellows is less than five, and then only to such an extent as may be required to make up the number of five; and in the mean time existing fellows may act and vote as if the number of stipendiary fellows had been fixed at the number of fellows existing at the time of the passing of this Act, instead of at the number of five.

"The offices of the eight unofficial honorary members shall be deemed to be vacant immediately upon the passing of this Act; and it shall be lawful for Her Majesty to nominate the three nominee honorary fellows, and for the existing provost and fellows to elect the five elective honorary fellows accordingly. If any vacancy in the office of elective honorary fellow is not filled up within three calendar months after the passing of this Act, it shall be lawful for Her Majesty to nominate a qualified person to fill that vacancy.

"The governing body shall be deemed to be duly constituted when the offices of the eight unofficial honorary fellows have once been filled up; and after that time, during any vacancy in the governing body, the existing members shall act as if no vacancy had occurred.

"The quorum of the governing body at their meetings shall be seven.

"The provost of Eton, or in his absence some one chosen by the members present at a meeting of the governing body, shall be chairman of that meeting."

Na journal not devoted to education, some apology might be required for introducing a subject so hackneyed as "Combinations and Strikes." This subject, like that of education itself, has become distasteful to the general reader, on account of the flood of vague and irrelevant matter with which our periodical literature has been deluged, both directly from the pen, and indirectly from speeches at public meetings, where these subjects have been treated of.

The subject of Combinations and Strikes cannot, however, have become distasteful to teachers as teachers, because it has seldom found its way into schools. And our purpose now is to invite them consider whether this subject do not deserve some of their attention, and whether the judicious treatment of it in schools will not shield it from some of that ill-treatment outside which it has met with so undeservedly?

If we can show teachers that correct views upon the probable influence of Combinations and Strikes will materially affect the future well-being of their pupils, and also that it is quite within the scope of school instruction that correct views shall be formed by the pupils in their schools, we feel quite sure of obtaining their attention; and if we cannot do thus much, none of their attention ought to be bestowed upon us, due as it may be, nevertheless, to the matter which we shall have failed in elucidating.

VOL. II.

As for the importance to the young of correct views upon the probable effect of Combinations and Strikes, we need do little more than state what that effect is expected to be, viz., increased | wages, or, which is the same thing, less work withundiminished wages. Few teachers can contemplate the present state and future prospects of adults now at work, without desiring for their pupils better prospective wages than those which widely prevail, however well they may be reconciled to the modicum reasonably to be expected at starting. Neither can teachers consider this thought to be otherwise than a wholesome one for their pupils to carry into industrial life :—“ By what means may we hope to become entitled to, and possessed of, such wages as will enable us, at least, to live decently and comfortably?”

How far it is possible to qualify the young while yet in our schools, to judge of the means likely to be accessible to them for obtaining satisfactory wages, or for obtaining an increase of the unsatisfactory wages which they may be compelled to put up with for a time, is a matter to which a little space and attention must be devoted before we can ask teachers to agree or to discuss with us. We must bespeak, at the same time, a certain amount of indulgence, if our attempted exposition should be more elementary and elaborate than might appear called for between teachers and teachers. They will kindly bear in mind that we are addressing the parents'

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of the children in their schools as well as themselves. We can hardly hope to escape mystification, confusion, and obscurity, except by avoiding to use many of the general terms in common use, or by deferring their use until we have established the existence, and obtained a firm hold of, the idea, for which those terms are the names. To this precaution against admissions not warranted by experience under cover of vague and ambiguous language, may be added another against the unguarded introduction into schools of subjects that are beyond the comprehension of the children to be instructed in them. Such subjects might be overlooked in a crowd. To secure inspection, therefore, we will enumerate, one by one, some of the subjects which, in our judgment, are at once important to be known, and teachable to the young. Attention will thus be fixed upon each separately, and whatever is deemed inadmissible can easily be objected to at once.

Assuming it to be desirable that all the young should take from school as correct and vivid an impression as is possible at their age, of the nature of the life which awaits them, we will proceed, briefly and succinctly, to place before our readers some of the matters important to be understood, on which the young may be brought to observe, and judge correctly, and feel strongly, if they be but under the direction of teachers capable of supporting and guiding them.

1. They and all their fellow-creatures are subsisting upon the produce of past labour-partly even of the labour of some of the men who lived many ages ago. If the produce of past labour were suddenly destroyed, all men would perish, with the exception of a few here and there in the warmer climates, who might subsist upon the spontaneous products of the earth.

2. They and their fellow-creatures are day by day consuming the produce of past labour-some things rapidly, as articles of food; others more slowly, as articles of clothing, and furniture, and dwellings. If then, men are to continue to live as comfortably, and in as large numbers, as at present, the produce of past labour must be replaced as fast as it is consumed. If they are to live more comfortably, and in larger numbers, the produce consumed must be more than replaced. No portion of the labour, and of the knowledge and skill to assist it, which were at work in the past, can be spared in the present and future, if society is not to deteriorate. More of each must be brought to bear upon production, if society is to be improved.

3. Maintenance of the stores of produce, and encouragement of future production, are indis

pensable for the continued subsistence of society as it is. Other efforts must be added to these, in order to bring about an improved state of society. Side by side with these truths, it has become known to us that some men will not work to produce, and will spoil and waste as well as consume. Not only do they fail to replace what they consume, but they would, if not prevented, destroy the produce of other men's labour, and thereby discourage their efforts to produce and save for the future.

4. A consciousness of the existence of such ill

disposed persons interspersed among the other members of society, fear of their increase, and alarm lest the industry, knowledge, skill, and economy upon which the subsistence and improvement of society depend, should decline or perish under their assaults, have led to efforts to resist, and, if possible, to overcome them. Combinations and contrivances for these purposes fall within the province of what goes by the name of government, and must ever be the work of those who desire to defend the happiness and progress of society against those who are indifferent or averse to that which is indispensable for the general welfare.

5. The conclusion arrived at, and acted upon, by those who have been accepted as most competent to organize and administer the powers of government, is, that their efforts must be directed. First, To securing to each member of society the undisturbed enjoyment of the produce of his industry: implying liberty to exchange, to buy and sell, to lend and borrow, to give, and also to appoint, subject to some few restrictions, who, at his death, shall succeed to his possessions. The powers thus enjoyed under the protection of government constitute the "rights of property." The declarations of these rights by government, are a portion of the laws under which we enjoy property. The products of industry being called "wealth," property consists of wealth, and those titles to wealth recognised by law. The penalties by which rights are protected against those who would invade them, are another portion of laws.

Second, To securing, chiefly through the promotion of the teaching and training of the young, that knowledge, skill, and good habits-the human agents in the production, preservation, and enjoyment of wealth-shall as nearly as possible be coextensive with life itself.

6. A very cursory survey of society enables us to recognise who are the principal possessors of wealth, as we see them around us, and as they have grown up under the protection of our laws, and also who are those that possess little or no wealth.

The former are the elders, the inheritors of wealth, and the more capable, that is, the more intelligent, industrious, economical, and trustworthy. The latter are the younger, and the less capable, that is, the uninstructed, the indolent, the dissipated, and the untrustworthy. It cannot be questioned that the former are much better fitted than the latter to hold and dispose of that wealth, the replacement of which, as fast as it is consumed, is so essential to the welfare of society. To entrust it to the latter is impossible, and would be fatal were it possible. Nevertheless, no human being, whatever his disqualifications, can be entirely shut out from access to some portion of wealth. To shut him out, would be to sentence him to death by starvation. It remains to be shewn how the "rights of property" may be maintained while the "duties to humanity" are performed.

7. The difficulty in the way of performing each of these duties, without neglecting the other, although by no means overcome, is seen to be greatly diminished when once attention is directed to the practice prevailing among a large portion of the possessors of wealth, and a still larger portion of the wealthless; the first, devoting some of that wealth which they reserve as a provision against future want, to the purchase of labour wherewith to acquire more; the second, selling their labour for some of that wealth, without which they could neither work nor live. The readiness, on one side, to part with present wealth in order to obtain increased wealth in the future, and on the other, to surrender the direction and produce of one's own labour to obtain the produce of past labour, has been accompanied and followed by a succession of contrivances, in the form of machinery and other instruments of production, by which the labour purchased is made to accomplish results otherwise unattainable, and to bring about the continually increasing accumulations of wealth everywhere observable. It must be evident that the duties to property and to humanity will be performed together more and more in harmony, progressively as the wealthy become less wasteful, and the wealthless less incapable.

8. This practice of applying wealth to the purpose of procuring more wealth in the future, has given rise to a number of arrangements and bargains to suit the convenience and circumstances of the various persons disposed to apply a portion of their wealth to this.

What these arrangements and bargains are, ought to be understood; but it would be tedious to describe them without using the terms in general and it is dangerous to use these terms without making sure of the things which the terms are

use;

the names of. Let us, therefore, rapidly run over these things, and mention the names which have been given to them.

a. Wealth applied to the purpose of obtaining increase is called capital. Originally, capital can have been little more than wealth, parted with for the purchase of labour. Progressively, larger and larger portions of capital have assumed the form of instruments of production, among the latest developments of which may be named railways and their appendages, agricultural, mining and manufacturing machinery, ships, docks, harbours, and canals.

b. Wealth obtained by sale of labour is called wages. The portion of capital set apart for this purpose is spoken of as a wages-fund, to distinguish it from other portions of capital evidently no longer available for purchasing labour.

c. The increase of wealth, looked forward to from the application of wealth as capital, is called profit.

d. Many owners of capital are not administrators of capital; some administer the capital of others as well as their own. Where they are not, as in the case of those who prefer to work for wages, of professional men, and of men conscious of incapacity for directing labour, they lend their capitals, surrendering their title to the larger but uncertain return called profit, and bargaining with the borrower for a smaller but certain stipulated return. This smaller and stipulated return is called interest.

e. Besides these arrangements for facilitating the co-operation of capital and labour in the work of production, there are various forms of partnership and joint-stock association, admitting, according to the tastes, capabilities, and means of each, the separation, partial or complete, of the elements of the total future profit expected; these elements being, remuneration for the superintendence, for the risk, and for the use, without risk, of the capital. The latter of these elements, as before stated, is called interest.

f. Wealth, capital, wages, profit, and interest, are more frequently than otherwise measured in money, and distributed with the aid of money. They are also spoken of, and written about, as money. But each of them is a thing of itself, independently of money. And money is another thing.

With the assistance of these terms, bearing in mind that they are familiar to thousands who attach no definite meanings to them, and keeping on our guard, so as not to be entrapped into using them, sometimes in one sense, sometimes in an other, quite unconscious that the matters denoted by them have been shifted, let us proceed further

to indicate what the pupils in our schools can be led to deduce for themselves from what they have already observed and thought over.

9. The tendency of administrators of capital or employers, is for them to distribute the wagesfund at their command among the labourers whom they employ, according to the estimate which they form of the producing powers of each. Making use of the term "labourers" in its widest signification, employers will give to some, £5000 a-year; to some, £10 a-week; to some, 3s. a-day; and to others they will refuse wages or employment altogether.

10. The total capital, and hence the total wagesfund, is a limited quantity. If it were distributed among labourers in equal portions to each, the portion of each could not be more than the quotient of the whole wages-fund divided by the number of labourers. If this portion or wage were considered insufficient, its increase could only be procured by increasing the total wagesfund, or by diminishing the number of labourers. The latter mode of increasing average wages does not require to be considered, and the former can only be brought about at some future time, near or distant, rapidly or slowly, according to opportunities and the means resorted to.

11. Increase of wages to all is no more possible at once, because the wages-fund is distributed among labourers according to their respective producing powers, than if it were distributed among them equally and irrespectively of their comparative producing powers. If more than the average share be given to some, there must remain less than the average share for others. But there are two compensating circumstances attached to the apportionment of wages according to producing powers. Greater future wealth is produced, and as the wages fall into the possession of more capable men, they are more likely to be well used, and to be partly added to capital forthwith.

12. Employers and employed,-they who have bought and they who have sold labour,—it will be observed, are two classes much more distinguishable than capitalists and labourers. In every country where the industrial virtues flourish, and in proportion as they flourish, labourers, excepting the youngest, whose power of earning and hence of saving is as yet undeveloped, are capitalists.

They lend their capitals because they can earn more through wages and interest than they see their way to earn by administering their own capitals, either separately or in co-operation with other capitalists. The savings banks alone, with their deposits of more than £40,000,000 are

proofs apparent to everybody; and many more might be produced, of the extent to which, in a community still deplorably afflicted with ignorance and misconduct, labourers are capitalists.

The chart of life, and the sailing directions which the young will take out of schools where they receive this kind of instruction, point to wealth as the reward of intelligence and good conduct,-wages small at first, because producing power is small, but growing with the growth of the estimate formed of producing power. The capable labourer does no damage to his less capable fellow-labourer. He assists in the increase, so urgently required, of future capital. If he save, a portion of his wages becomes capital at once, wherewith employers distribute more wages. The incapable, he assists to support. Lessons easy and pleasant to learn in schools become difficult and painful if deferred till those who never learned such lessons begin to suffer from their ignorance. To children who leave school with correct chart and good sailing directions, with capacity for using them and resolution to act upon them, the world opens not as a scene of storm and tempest, in which shipwreck can with difficulty be escaped, but as an arena for the exercise of industry, intelligence, and the other social virtues, with probable success in the future, and certain satisfaction from the performance of duty int he present. Little comfort can be derived by the victims of ignorance and vice from the knowledge, if communicable to them, that their destitution and suffering are the consequences of previous mistaken conduct. In the presence of misery, it would be brutal, if possible, to trace to the sufferers the causes, no longer removable, of their sufferings.

Taking our leave of school days, we will accompany the young as they leave the schools in which they had received instruction such as we have faintly sketched. Four out of every five of them will be more or less dépendent for subsistence upon the sale of their labour. They will rejoice rather than complain that there are employers to be found able and willing to buy their labour, and able and willing to afford them opportunities of increasing their powers of usefulness. They may regret, if service satisfactory to themselves and their friends is not easy to be found, that capital and employers are not more abundant. They will surely not murmur if employers, with capital at command, are so much in want of labour that, not waiting to be sought, they apply at the schools to obtain recruits likely to be made efficient labourers and deserving of wages.