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Chinese as hitherto, it is just possible that 100 of anarchy, which we must in the meantime years hence they might be doing still more accept, with any loss it causes, as an unavoidimporting, exporting and emigrating. On the able evil; like our present expensive, but other hand, it has been established by histori- strictly just, and thoroughly politic war with cal experience in the west; that interference Russia.

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with the internal affairs of other countries is Mr. Macdonald ridicules our " guarding certainly mischievous, however much tempo- against imaginary Russian dangers in China;" rary expediency might seem to require it. but the greatest, though not nearest danger The expedition Mr. Macdonald suggests up of a weak China lies precisely in those terripast Han Kow, is the navigation of some 800 torial aggressions of Russia which she began miles of the third river of the world, in its to attempt two centuries ago, one of which course through a varied and densely populated she has sccessfully carried out at the Amoor country, now the scene of civil war. He within the last three years: and which, if alwould be a bad observer and the driest of lowed to go on, will speedily give her a large describers who could not, after such an ex- and populous territory, faced with Sweaborgs ploration, send home "a very interesting re- and Sebastopols, on the seaboard of eastern port." But, so far as our solid unpoetic com- Asia. Turkey, by the by, forms at this momercial interests are concerned, the expedi- ment a grave example of the consequences of tion would be extremely injudicious. We former intermeddling; yet I doubt not that, know now, as well as we ever can know, that after each achievement of triumphant busibodiopen trade with Han Kow is most desirable; ness, "our Minister" of the day sent home". and to force our way there, when it is literal- very interesting report." We went on knockly the scene of a fierce internal struggle, ing the "man" down with one hand, and lifting would be impolitic as well as unjust-a blun- him up with the other, till he got “sick,” and der not less than a crime. From the moment then, when he is unable to stand up alone to that I ascertained at Nanking, in April, 1853, another great strong man, who knocks him that the insurrectionary movement was reli- down and kicks him when down, we are comgious as well as political, and that I was forced pelled to strip and fight the big bully ourto admit the, by me most unlooked for, and, selves. To support the "sick man in the therefore, sceptically approached, fact that in near East is an arduous and costly affair; let its religious features it was really, though er- England, France, and America too, beware ringly, based on a Protestant translation of how they create a "sick giant" in the far East, the Scriptures, which its leaders were repub- for they may rest assured that, if "Turkey is lishing unaltered, and sedulously diffusing European necessity," China is a world necesfrom that moment I had but one answer to all sity. the many questioners respecting the result of the rising, viz., that the best informed of us could not possibly form a reliable conclusion, but that the struggle, end as it might, would certainly be very hard. And so hard has it, indeed, proved, that now, after the lapse of two years and a-half, I do not believe that either of the contending parties themselves even can feel assured of ultimate success, whatever their language and their hopes may be. From all this, the only sound policy of foreign States is obvious; first and chiefest, to preserve a rigid and true neutrality; secondly, to define their existing rights at the open ports distinctly, and maintain them without vacillation (in which case arms will rarely, if ever, require to be employed, whether against Im- While Paris is crowded with English, the perialists or rebels); and, lastly, to abstain Government is harassed by hostile suggestions, from forcing on either party diplomatic nego- within France as well as without, that the tiation, until there is something more solid and Emperor Napoleon is sacrificing the interests assured to deal with than a much-shaken old, of his country to" perfide Albion;" and a or an insecurely established new dynasty. I paper in the Moniteur,-explaining the sacbeg the British commercial world to rest as- rifices which England has made, the assistance sured that the Chinese do know something which she has given in the form of naval transabout governing themselves, and that, if care- port, and the money-advances that she has fully let alone, they will reappear under a supplied,-shows that the Government thinks stronger Government, Manchoo or native, than it necessary to reply to these malignant reprethey have had these 50 years, after a period sentations. The Emperor has to apprehend,

I am, Sir, your obedient servant, THOMAS TAYLOR MEADOWS, Official Chinese Interpreter of 10 years' active service.

Oriental Club, Sept. 21.

From The Spectator, 29 Sept. PARIS is still the centre of Europe in many ways. The monetary difficulties that press yet more heavily upon other states than France, make themselves apparent in the proceedings of the French financial authorities, who in raising the rate of bank discount, and putting a constraint upon new enterprise, exhibit a caution which creates the apprehension that it ought in some respects to allay.

not only the difficulties inherent in a winter | And in the same week's news we have a destined to be aggravated by a corn-deficiency second letter from Manin, ex-President of the and war-taxes, but the attempts which his ene- Venetian Republic, now resident in Paris, demies at home as well as abroad will make to claring that he raises the standard of union turn those difficulties to a political account. between the Republicans and the ConstiNapoleon, however, is not the man to recede tutionalists, offering Italy to the house of before troubles; he is more likely to confront Savoy. them and to overpass them; and if, in the absence of distinct reports, signs can be trusted, Paris is the centre of some movement in which, it would seem, France, with the aid of her allies, will take the initiative and the aggres

sive.

The arrival of the King of Sardinia has been delayed by the serious illness of that monarch; and so important has he become in the West as well as in the South, that a general consent has concealed the serious nature of his illness. Of course it will delay his arrival in Paris; but it does not seem likely to arrest a large movement in which he is interested.

From The Spectator, 29 Sept.

RUSSIA IN THE BLACK SEA : 1829-1855,

FROM the days of Peter the Great to the treaty of Adrianople the Russians had been accustomed to vanquish the Turks, dissipate their unwieldy armies, storm their fortified places, and wrest from them province after province, until the frontiers of Russia were the Pruth, the shores of the Euxine, the mountain-chain of Ararat, and the rivers of Turkish Armenia. Europe aided and abetted the Czar in destroying the overgrown power of the Sultans, whose only allies were the Hungarians in their times We string together the facts as we find them. of trouble. William Pitt, indeed, seems to have The Duke of Saxe Coburg has arrived in foreseen dimly the threatening aggrandizement Paris, the Duke of Saxe Coburg, one of the of Russia both by land and sea, and to have minor monarchs of Germany who has such made a feeble effort to arrest her progress; high connections and is so closely connected but Charles James Fox and the Whigs saw in by blood with the Western Alliance. The ar- Russia the natural ally of England against rival of Baron Prokesch-Osten is announced. France,, and they prevented Pitt's intended Baron Prokesch was that one of the Austrian opposition to Potemkin's mistress. But the Commissioners at the diplomatic conferences growth of Russian power and prestige after the who was most cordial towards the Western victories of 1812, half-opened the eyes of Eurepresentatives, most uncompromising in his rope; and so early as 1815, Talleyrand had language to Russia. In the Constitutionnel dreamed of an alliance between England, appears a long article by M. Granier de Cas- France, and Austria, to put a limit to the presagnac, commenting on the position to which Russia and her friends are reduced; declaring that "the remains of the feudal edifice are buried under the ruins of Malakhoff," with oligarchic pretensions" and "retrograde systems;" announcing that the actual state of society "marks the epochs which are favorable to revolutionary movements," and warning the reactionary Governments not to draw upon themselves a war of extermination. Such is the spirit of a paper by a writer who may be said to have hitherto wielded the conservative pen for the emperor Napoleon.

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tensions of Alexander. Thenceforth wars of Russia against Turkey acquired a European interest, because they indirectly affected European independence; and although the Great Powers united to shear away Greece from the territory of the Sultan, they looked with the gravest apprehension on the campaigns of 1828 and 1829. Those campaigns were the last in which Russia was destined to have free scope in her designs against Constantinople: a comparison of their results, therefore, with those of 1854 and 1855, will be interesting as well as curious.

In the same week's news we have a string It may be safely asserted that the war of of speeches delivered by Sir Alexander Malet, 1828 was undertaken by the Emperor Nichothe British representative at the Frankfort las for the same purpose that he provoked the Diet, to a dinner party comprising English present contest to check the reorganization and French and Sardinians. Sir Alexander of modern Turkey. Sultan Mahmoud had detoasted the Emperor of the French, as "the stroy ed the Janissaries, and the Great Powers most eminent and remarkable man of his had destroyed his fleet and dismembered his age; "lauded Sardinia for supporting "the empire. But he had begun to form a new arprinciple of European freedom;" glanced at my, on the European model, as a basis for civil certain "pitiful prejudices;" drew a distinc- reforms. Moltke boasts that Russia " nipped tion between the people and the Court of the Sultan's military reforms in the bud," and Prussia, with its shackled press and its re- exults in the fact that "since that time the strained debates; and pronounced the King Porte has never been able to form an army, and Government "responsible for the mani- but what it was immediately destroyed in fresh fold sufferings entailed by a state of war." wars against the Arnauts, the Egyptians, and

the Kurds." As it was in 1827, so it was in rous as the army under Diebitch, and the faults 1853: the Turkish army was growing again; committed in the former siege were avoided. reform was lifting up its head; Turkey was But Russia was not in possession of the Black making progress; and the Czar determined on Sea; her forces were separated by the broad a fresh step in the career initiated by his an- Danube. Omar Pasha held Schumla in the cestors. Here the similarity ends, for the mili-front and Kalafat on the flank of the Russian tary results have been far from identical. army. An Anglo-French force gathered at The contrast between the campaigns of Gallipoli and pushed on to Varna. An Aus1828-29 and that of 1854 is not a little re-trian force was assembling behind the Carpamarkable: In 1828, the Czar Nicholas ac-thians, in rear of the Russian line of communicompanied his army and partially directed its cations. Add to this the fact that the Turks movements. The Principalities were overrun; had actually raised up those outworks in deBrailow was captured; Schumla to some ex-fence of Silistria the want of which facilitated tent fruitlessly blockaded; Varna besieged its fall in 1829. When the Russians failed to and taken; and the siege of Silistria was be- carry the Arab Tabia before the arrival of the gun but abandoned. We might almost say that Anglo-French army at Varna, the enemy had no generalship was shown on either side; and no course left but to raise the siege. The Rus had not Varna fallen by the treachery of Jus-sian army retreated from Silistria, because the suf, and the slowness and lack of audacity in possible pressure on it in front, flank, and rear, Omar Vrione and the Grand Vizier, who com- was such as no army could withstand; and fi manded the relieving army, the sole fruit of the nally evacuated the Principalities, as much campaign would have been the capture of Brai- from military as political motives. low and the occupation of the Principalities. But the contrast in Asia is still more striking. The Turks had shown that they could fight, General Paskiewitch, in the brilliant campaign but they had also shown that they could not of 1828, captured three fortresses and defeated manœuvre in the field; and, all things con- the Seraskier. Anapa and Poti also fell before sidered. Moltke finds it difficult to say which the fleet and army. In 1854, the Turks take party was the greater loser in the five months the aggressive; and the Russians, although of warfare. But in 1829, an able general, Die-victorious in every engagement, are content to bitch, took command of the Russian army, wage war on the defensive. In 1829, Paskiemaking this condition with the Emperor, that witch, with a small force, outgeneralled and he should not interfere in the least with the defeated the Turks, added Erzeroum to his army's movements. In three months General conquests, and, in four months of skilful warDiebitch was master of the situation. He laid fare, carried his arms triumphantly as far as the siege to Silistria; fought and won a battle at mines of Gumish Khana, within a few miles of Kulewtscha; blocked up the Grand Vizier in Trebizond. In 1855, General Mouravieff, who Schumla; reduced Silistria; dashing across served under Paskie witch, has not been able to the Balkan, he triumphantly entered Adriano- do more than sieze Ardaghan, invest Kars, ple; and, with a force diminished to a few and threaten Erzeroum; while the whole of the thousands, aided by unscrupulous diplomacy forts on the Black Sea, from Poti to Anapa, and the apprehension of Europe, dictated a have been taken from the Russians within the treaty of peace which crippled the defensive last twelve months. power of Turkey, gained the control of the Danube, and exacted an indemnity for the expenses of the war.

!

By the campaigns of 1828-29, the Russians obtained the whip-hand of Turkey. But even at this period of the campaigns of 1854-55, How different the campaigns of 1853-54 Russia has lost all she then gained, and infiThis time Europe backed the Turks, and Omar nitely more. Instead of being mistress of the Pasha commanded them. The Russians had Euxine and the Sea of Azoff, not one Russian occupied the Principalities without opposition; vessel floats on either of these waters. Instead but war was no sooner declared, than Omar of holding the Circassian coast, she has been Pasha made the enemy feel that he had a gen- expelled from it. Instead of lording it over the eral before him. The brilliant operations mouths of the Danube, she trembles for Ismail. which resulted in the victory at Oltenitza and Nay, more than all, her own territory has been the occupation of Kalafat, showed that the Sul- invaded- her cherished Sebastopol, the citatan had an officer who could make the most del of the Euxine, erected at a cost of many of a handful of men; and the combat at Ci-millions, has fallen, with the fleet it sheltered; tate, in the winter, proved that he had taught and the sole advantage she has gained in two them to fight in the open field. In 1854, years is the capture of Ardaghan and the occu Prince Gortschakoff began the campaign by pation of the pashalic of Kars. Finally, in laying siege to Silistria; and Prince Paskie- 1828-29, the Russian losses by violence and witch soon arrived to aid in the enterprise. disease could not have been less than 150,000 The Russian army was at least twice as nume-men; but in these later campaigns, how much

greater the loss! That loss was estimated, works, the base of which was the great roadeight months ago, at 270,000; and we fear to speculate on its augmentation since.

Thus, by comparing the last with the present war, we see how terrible are the distresses of all kinds which the Western Powers can inflict upon Russia; and how, in less than two years, they have been able to undo and more than undo a large part of the very costly work brought to a close at Adrianople on the 14th September 1829.

From the Spectator, 29 Sept.
FORTIFICATION.

stead, and the forts on the North side. The principle on which these earthworks were constructed was, that every point of importance on the external line should be commanded by the guns of an internal line, and that every assailable point should be likewise protected by a flanking fire from another, in addition to its own direct fire; so that storming without pushing the sap up to the ditch should be as impracticable as in a stone fortification. In addition to this, the interiors of the main works were so arranged as to afford not only bomb-proof shelter to the garrison from a vertical fire, but means of effectual deTHE successful termination of the attack on fence by the garrison in case any portion was Sebastopol has revived the controversy on the carried, as in the case of the salient of the new system of fortification alleged to have Great Redan, the Little Redan, and the Cenbeen employed in its defence. On one side tral Bastion, where the experiment was tried. the statement is, that the long resistance of Two other conditions of defence were necesthe Russians establishes the validity of the sary, an unlimited supply of guns and new system known as the Ferguson system; munitions, and an unlimited supply of men on the other it is contended, that no new prin- and provisions. The former existed in the ciples of attack or defence have been estab-arsenal; the latter were poured in from the lished in the so-called siege. Without dogma- North side. tizing on the subject, we may be allowed to present some considerations suggested by the perusal of the accounts describing the reduction of the place.

Such were the means of defence adopted, and such the advantages enjoyed by the enemy. How were they taken from him? Without asserting that the evidence is conThe weak point in the controversy lies inclusive, we may point to the fact, that where the mistaken notion of the object for which he adhered to the principles of his defenceplaces are fortified. That object is twofold,- works within works, open to the rear-he to form points of support to an army in the made a triumphant defence; and that in the field, in other words a secure base of opera- single instance where he departed from that tions; or to delay a hostile army until a re- principle he met with a disastrous, a decisive lieving army can come up and raise the siege. defeat. At the Little Redan, at the Central Fortifications are not and cannot be impreg- Bastion, at the Great Redan, the approaches nable; because in nearly every case they can were flanked by guns, the works were open to be invested, and their fall becomes simply a the rear; there was a free scope for the emquestion of time and means. But the South ployment of troops, and what is more, of field side of Sebastopol was not a fortress in the or- artillery. But the Korniloff Bastion, the key dinary sense of the term. It was, what it has of the place, was, strangely enough, closed to been so often called, an intrenched camp, un- the rear; so that when the assailants gained invested, amply supplied, and defended by an the interior, it was rapidly converted into a army constantly reinforced. In one sense, in- fortress in their hands, impregnable to the endeed, the garrison of this so-called fortress emy. The tactics of the Russians were thus was the whole strength of the Russian army turned against them, and they found that imavailable for operations in the Crimea. From possible, which, probably, had it been our case, another point of view, taking in the whole we should have found impossible also-namesurface occupied by the Russians, we may con- ly, to storm a redoubt amply manned and consider Sebastopol as a position, and a position tinuously supplied. Thus, where the princiof that kind, as we have previously pointed ples of the new system were observed, we out, which is the strongest known-namely, a failed; and where they were abandoned, we position covered on one side by steep heights succeeded. Nor is the success explained by plentifully garnished with men and guns, and on the other by stupendous earthworks, enclosing an arsenal and many ships of war. It is, therefore, an entirely exceptional posi

tion.

saying that the French approaches were carried, with persevering energy, to the very ditch of the Malakhoff; because the retort is, that the approaches were also carried to the ditch of the Little Redan, and to that of the Bearing in mind these limitations, let us Central Bastion; that, like the stormers of the consider the nature of the works raised in de- Malakhoff, the stormers of the Little Redan fence of the South side of Sebastopol. They and of the Central Bastion did carry the outer consisted of an enormous triangle of earth-line at the first rush, but found that they

could not hold it under the withering dis- dependence and Unity, I reject everything charges from the guns and muskets of the that deviates from it. If regenerated Italy is second line. Is it not fair to infer that Ma- to have a King, there is but one possible, and lakhoff was held because it was provided with no second line; and that the new principle of defence that of lines of earthworks commanding each other, and supplied with unlimited guns, ammunition, and men-did prove successful at Sebastopol? For have not these arrested the numbers, the skill, and the means of the Allies, for a whole year?

Now, as we take it, the real value of these earthworks depends upon this and nothing more-that they are good so long as defenders are numerous and the means plentiful, but of no avail whatever, for the purpose of arresting the progress of an army, where the defenders are few and the means limited. Thus the whole question resolves itself, to give the discussion a practical application, into a sufficiency of prompt engineering skill and means, and a sufficiency of money.

From The Spectator, 29 Sept.

CHANGE IN THE STATE OF ITALY.

that is the King of Piedmont." He has, in a
second letter, more specifically offered to
promote a union between the Republicans and
the Constitutionalists, under the house of
Savoy. Signor Manin is the Moderate Re-
publican who so ably administered the govern-
ment of Venice, not as Doge but as President,
during her last brief resurrection.
known for his discretion as well as his earnest-
ness; and his adhesion, even in this conditional
form, to the idea of an Italian monarchy, is in
itself an event.

He is

It must be admitted that under the crown

But it is an event which shows the more than ever unsettled state of the Italian question. Italy is becoming a field upon which other powers may be in conflict besides her own parties. The Western Governments have to settle accounts with Naples; Austria is strongly fortified in the North, and is expected to brave any attacks on the Italian side. Central Italy is totally incapable of guessing at its own immediate future. The only thing of which we are certain is, that A VAGUE sense that "something is brew- Absolutism in Italy is bigoted to its own in" among the statesmen of Western Europe, principles, and appears prepared to make a raises an expectation that "the Italian question final stand, giving no quarter; while on the is to be settled.' Let us ask ourselves what is other hand, the Republican party has been "the Italian question?" At the present casting off successively some of its most dismoment we have several states in Italy repre- tinguished members to accept the idea of a sented at each other's courts by diplomatic monarchy. personages; and one court is withdrawing its representatives from another, indicating in the of Sardinia, provinces as much separated as fact, not only that the countries are "foreign "any in the Peninsula, Piedmont and Genoa, to each other, but that they are hostile. At have been brought to cordiality and 'co-operaleast such is the relative position of the govern- tion; the stubborn Republicans of Liguria ments are the people less separated? Per- maintaining their independence of opinion, haps they may be so; but if they are, their but lending their aid in a practical developunion can only be so much a matter of con- ment of the constitution. So far there is subjecture that we cannot know it. It is but a stantial progress towards union and solidity in very few years since the Italians of the differ- the North. But the foreign circumstances ent states not only called each other "foreign- which must have so great a share in determiners," but regarded each other with that species ing the future of Italy, the domestic opinions of superiority which every people feels towards which will guide the action of the Italians, are the foreigner. If the race and the feelings are changing from day to day, almost from hour to different, so are the opinions. There are the hour; and any attempt to settle" the Italian Constitutionalists of the North, the Muratists question" in this present week could not sucof the South, the Republicans, the Federalists, ceed for its professed object, and could have and the Unitarians of the whole "Boot;" no effect at all, unless it were to prevent some each party arguing its own "question," and settlement that may become possible. This maintaining its own views. conviction seems to be felt rather than distinctly The very latest appearance of Italians in admitted by leading Italians. So Manin offers the field has indicated this antagonism of union, but pre-judges the very question of opinion amongst them. A well-known Nea- unity, which can only be effected by the depolitan is the reputed author of the pamphlet liberate will of the Italians, or by events entitled "The Italian Question: Murat and stronger than all Italian parties put together. the Bourbons." The project of restoring But the moderating of dogmatic demands inMurat is repudiated by Signor Ricciardi dicates a tendency to unite, more promising through the Presse; and again by Signor for Italy than all formal subscriptions to the Manin, who says, "Faithful to my motto, In- motto of " Unity."

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