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fence of Silistria the want of which facilitated its fall in 1829. When the Russians failed to carry the Arab Tabia before the arrival of the Anglo-French army at Varna, the enemy had no course left but to raise the siege. The Rus sian army retreated from Silistria, because the possible pressure on it in front, flank, and rear, was such as no army could withstand; and finally evacuated the Principalities, as much from military as political motives.

the Kurds." As it was in 1827, so it was in rous as the army under Diebitch, and the faults 1853 the Turkish army was growing again; committed in the former siege were avoided. reform was lifting up its head; Turkey was But Russia was not in possession of the Black making progress; and the Czar determined on Sea; her forces were separated by the broad a fresh step in the career initiated by his an- Danube. Omar Pasha held Schumla in the cestors. Here the similarity ends, for the mili- front and Kalafat on the flank of the Russian tary results have been far from identical. army. An Anglo-French force gathered at The contrast between the campaigns of Gallipoli and pushed on to Varna. An Aus1828-29 and that of 1854 is not a little re-trian force was assembling behind the Carpamarkable: In 1828, the Czar Nicholas ac- thians, in rear of the Russian line of communicompanied his army and partially directed its cations. Add to this the fact that the Turks movements. The Principalities were overrun; had actually raised up those outworks in deBrailow was captured; Schumla to some extent fruitlessly blockaded; Varna besieged and taken; and the siege of Silistria was begun but abandoned. We might almost say that no generalship was shown on either side; and had not Varna fallen by the treachery of Jussuf, and the slowness and lack of audacity in Omar Vrione and the Grand Vizier, who commanded the relieving army, the sole fruit of the campaign would have been the capture of Brailow and the occupation of the Principalities. But the contrast in Asia is still more striking. The Turks had shown that they could fight, General Paskiewitch, in the brilliant campaign but they had also shown that they could not of 1828, captured three fortresses and defeated manœuvre in the field; and, all things con- the Seraskier. Anapa and Poti also fell before sidered. Moltke finds it difficult to say which the fleet and army. In 1854, the Turks take party was the greater loser in the five months the aggressive; and the Russians, although of warfare. But in 1829, an able general, Die- victorious in every engagement, are content to bitch, took command of the Russian army, wage war on the defensive. In 1829, Paskiemaking this condition with the Emperor, that witch, with a small force, outgeneralled and he should not interfere in the least with the defeated the Turks, added Erzeroum to his army's movements. In three months General conquests, and, in four months of skilful warDiebitch was master of the situation. He laid fare, carried his arms triumphantly as far as the siege to Silistria; fought and won a battle at mines of Gumish Khana, within a few miles of Kulewtscha; blocked up the Grand Vizier in Trebizond. In 1855, General Mouravieff, who Schumla; reduced Silistria; dashing across served under Paskiewitch, has not been able to the Balkan, he triumphantly entered Adriano- do more than sieze Ardaghan, invest Kars, ple; and, with a force diminished to a few and threaten Erzeroum; while the whole of the thousands, aided by unscrupulous diplomacy forts on the Black Sea, from Poti to Anapa, and the apprehension of Europe, dictated a have been taken from the Russians within the treaty of peace which crippled the defensive last twelve months. power of Turkey, gained the control of the Danube, and exacted an indemnity for the expenses of the war.

By the campaigns of 1828-29, the Russians obtained the whip-hand of Turkey. But even at this period of the campaigns of 1854-55, How different the campaigns of 1853-54 ! Russia has lost all she then gained, and infiThis time Europe backed the Turks, and Omar nitely more. Instead of being mistress of the Pasha commanded them. The Russians had Euxine and the Sea of Azoff, not one Russian occupied the Principalities without opposition; vessel floats on either of these waters. Instead but war was no sooner declared, than Omar of holding the Circassian coast, she has been Pasha made the enemy feel that he had a gen- expelled from it. Instead of lording it over the eral before him. The brilliant operations mouths of the Danube, she trembles for Ismail. which resulted in the victory at Oltenitza and Nay, more than all, her own territory has been the occupation of Kalafat, showed that the Sul- invaded-her cherished Sebastopol, the citatan had an officer who could make the most del of the Euxine, erected at a cost of many of a handful of men; and the combat at Ci-millions, has fallen, with the fleet it sheltered; tate, in the winter, proved that he had taught and the sole advantage she has gained in two them to fight in the open field. In 1854, years is the capture of Ardaghan and the occu Prince Gortschakoff began the campaign by pation of the pashalic of Kars. Finally, in laying siege to Silistria; and Prince Paskie- 1828-29, the Russian losses by violence and witch soon arrived to aid in the enterprise. disease could not have been less than 150,000 The Russian army was at least twice as nume-men; but in these later campaigns, how much

greater the loss! That loss was estimated, works, the base of which was the great roadeight months ago, at 270,000; and we fear to stead, and the forts on the North side. The speculate on its augmentation since.

Thus, by comparing the last with the present war, we see how terrible are the distresses of all kinds which the Western Powers can inflict upon Russia; and how, in less than two years, they have been able to undo and more than undo a large part of the very costly work brought to a close at Adrianople on the 14th September 1829.

From the Spectator, 29 Sept.
FORTIFICATION.

THE successful termination of the attack on Sebastopol has revived the controversy on the new system of fortification alleged to have been employed in its defence. On one side the statement is, that the long resistance of the Russians establishes the validity of the new system known as the Ferguson system; on the other it is contended, that no new principles of attack or defence have been established in the so-called siege. Without dogmatizing on the subject, we may be allowed to present some considerations suggested by the perusal of the accounts describing the reduction of the place.

principle on which these earthworks were constructed was, that every point of importance on the external line should be commanded by the guns of an internal line, and that every assailable point should be likewise protected by a flanking fire from another, in addition to its own direct fire; so that storming without pushing the sap up to the ditch should be as impracticable as in a stone fortification. In addition to this, the interiors of the main works were so arranged as to afford not only bomb-proof shelter to the garrison from a vertical fire, but means of effectual defence by the garrison in case any portion was carried, as in the case of the salient of the Great Redan, the Little Redan, and the Central Bastion, where the experiment was tried. Two other conditions of defence were necessary, an unlimited supply of guns and munitions, and an unlimited supply of men and provisions. The former existed in the arsenal; the latter were poured in from the North side.

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Such were the means of defence adopted, and such the advantages enjoyed by the enemy. How were they taken from him?

Without asserting that the evidence is conThe weak point in the controversy lies in clusive, we may point to the fact, that where the mistaken notion of the object for which he adhered to the principles of his defence— places are fortified. That object is twofold, works within works, open to the rear-he to form points of support to an army in the made a triumphant defence; and that in the field, in other words a secure base of opera- single instance where he departed from that tions; or to delay a hostile army until a re- principle he met with a disastrous, a decisive lieving army can come up and raise the siege. defeat. At the Little Redan, at the Central Fortifications are not and cannot be impreg- Bastion, at the Great Redan, the approaches nable; because in nearly every case they can were flanked by guns, the works were open to be invested, and their fall becomes simply a the rear; there was a free scope for the emquestion of time and means. But the South ployment of troops, and what is more, of field side of Sebastopol was not a fortress in the or- artillery. But the Korniloff Bastion, the key dinary sense of the term. It was, what it has of the place, was, strangely enough, closed to been so often called, an intrenched camp, un- the rear; so that when the assailants gained invested, amply supplied, and defended by an the interior, it was rapidly converted into a army constantly reinforced. In one sense, in- fortress in their hands, impregnable to the endeed, the garrison of this so-called fortress emy. The tactics of the Russians were thus was the whole strength of the Russian army turned against them, and they found that imavailable for operations in the Crimea. From possible, which, probably, had it been our case, another point of view, taking in the whole we should have found impossible also-namesurface occupied by the Russians, we may con- ly, to storm a redoubt amply manned and consider Sebastopol as a position, and a position tinuously supplied. Thus, where the princiof that kind, as we have previously pointed ples of the new system were observed, we out, which is the strongest known-namely, a failed; and where they were abandoned, we position covered on one side by steep heights succeeded. Nor is the success explained by plentifully garnished with men and guns, and saying that the French approaches were caron the other by stupendous earthworks, en- ried, with persevering energy, to the very closing an arsenal and many ships of war. ditch of the Malakhoff; because the retort is, It is, therefore, an entirely exceptional posi- that the approaches were also carried to the ditch of the Little Redan, and to that of the

tion.

Bearing in mind these limitations, let us Central Bastion; that, like the stormers of the consider the nature of the works raised in de- Malakhoff, the stormers of the Little Redan fence of the South side of Sebastopol. They and of the Central Bastion did carry the outer consisted of an enormous triangle of earth-line at the first rush, but found that they

could not hold it under the withering dis- dependence and Unity, I reject everything charges from the guns and muskets of the that deviates from it. If regenerated Italy is second line. Is it not fair to infer that Ma- to have a King, there is but one possible, and lakhoff' was held because it was provided with that is the King of Piedmont." He has, in a no second line; and that the new principle of second letter, more specifically offered to defence that of lines of earthworks com- promote a union between the Republicans and manding each other, and supplied with unlim- the Constitutionalists, under the house of ited guns, ammunition, and men-did prove Savoy. Signor Manin is the Moderate Resuccessful at Sebastopol? For have not these publican who so ably administered the governarrested the numbers, the skill, and the means ment of Venice, not as Doge but as President, of the Allies, for a whole year? during her last brief resurrection. known for his discretion as well as his earnestness; and his adhesion, even in this conditional form, to the idea of an Italian monarchy, is in itself an event.

Now, as we take it, the real value of these earthworks depends upon this and nothing more-that they are good so long as defenders are numerous and the means plentiful, but of no avail whatever, for the purpose of arresting the progress of an army, where the defenders are few and the means limited. Thus the whole question resolves itself, to give the discussion a practical application, into a sufficiency of prompt engineering skill and means, and a sufficiency of money.

From The Spectator, 29 Sept.

CHANGE IN THE STATE OF ITALY.

He is

But it is an event which shows the more than ever unsettled state of the Italian question. Italy is becoming a field upon which other powers may be in conflict besides her own parties. The Western Governments have to settle accounts with Naples; Austria is strongly fortified in the North, and is expected to brave any attacks on the Italian side. Central Italy is totally incapable of guessing at its own immediate future. The only thing of which we are certain is, that Absolutism in Italy is bigoted to its own principles, and appears prepared to make a final stand, giving no quarter; while on the other hand, the Republican party has been casting off successively some of its most distinguished members to accept the idea of a monarchy.

A VAGUE sense that "something is brewin" among the statesmen of Western Europe, raises an expectation that "the Italian question is to be settled.' Let us ask ourselves what is "the Italian question?" At the present moment we have several states in Italy represented at each other's courts by diplomatic personages; and one court is withdrawing its It must be admitted that under the crown representatives from another, indicating in the of Sardinia, provinces as much separated as fact, not only that the countries are "foreign" any in the Peninsula, Piedmont and Genoa, to each other, but that they are hostile. At have been brought to cordiality and 'co-operaleast such is the relative position of the govern- tion; the stubborn Republicans of Liguria ments are the people less separated? Per- maintaining their independence of opinion, haps they may be so; but if they are, their union can only be so much a matter of conjecture that we cannot know it. It is but a very few years since the Italians of the different states not only called each other "foreigners," but regarded each other with that species of superiority which every people feels towards the foreigner. If the race and the feelings are different, so are the opinions. There are the Constitutionalists of the North, the Muratists of the South, the Republicans, the Federalists, and the Unitarians of the whole "Boot; " each party arguing its own "question," and maintaining its own views.

but lending their aid in a practical development of the constitution. So far there is substantial progress towards union and solidity in the North. But the foreign circumstances which must have so great a share in determining the future of Italy, the domestic opinions which will guide the action of the Italians, are changing from day to day, almost from hour to hour; and any attempt to settle the Italian question" in this present week could not succeed for its professed object, and could have no effect at all, unless it were to prevent some settlement that may become possible. This conviction seems to be felt rather than distinctly The very latest appearance of Italians in admitted by leading Italians. So Manin offers the field has indicated this antagonism of union, but pre-judges the very question of opinion amongst them. A well-known Nea- unity, which can only be effected by the depolitan is the reputed author of the pamphlet liberate will of the Italians, or by events entitled "The Italian Question: Murat and stronger than all Italian parties put together. the Bourbons." The project of restoring But the moderating of dogmatic demands inMurat is repudiated by Signor Ricciardi dicates a tendency to unite, more promising through the Presse; and again by Signor for Italy than all formal subscriptions to the Manin, who says, "Faithful to my motto, In-motto of" Unity."

From The Economist, 29 Sept.
ITALIAN AGITATION.

couraged or aided, by Great Britain. Those who have been among our constant readers well know that we have more than once spokIr seems singularly difficult for foreigners- en in a way which should have prevented even for those who have resided long among any such inference being drawn; but we are us to comprehend the degree of freedom not sorry to have an opportunity of repeating and individualism which pervades the speak- the warning now. It is not possible for any ing and acting of nearly all classes of Eng- one with an English heart in his bosom not to lishmen. On the Continent men's thoughts feel a burning indignation when he reads of and utterances are so generally under Gov- gentlemen being hourly subjected to the inerment inspiration, or fettered by Government solence of the lowest soirri and bastinadoed to control, or checked by the dread of Gover-death for venturing to resent or rebuke those ment interference or retribution, that what is insolences. It is impossible not to pour forth said (or at least what is published) is usually our feelings of contempt and anger against conceived to have more or less of an official the monarch who authorizes, and of pity for character, or at all events not to be wholly the unhappy people who are called to endure, devoid of official sanction or connivance. Nor such extremities of barbarism. It would be is the inference there a very unjust one; for impossible not to feel, if the people did resist, when authority so perpetually interposes its that they had right on their side, and to wish preventive arm, it may not unfairly be held that they might have success also. There is answerable for what it does not prevent. no reason why these sentiments should be Moreover, this ceaseless sense of supervision concealed; there is every reason why they and restraint from powers above imparts a should be trumpeted forth as loud and far character of caution and design to all their as language can send them;-for even the political writing of which we in our free wickedest monarch is not wholly insensiland know little; few authors (on public sub-ble to what Europe thinks of him, and the jects at least) are quite without an arrière silliest may be frightened back into decency pensé; they seldom can give way to the epan- by plain and uncompromising warnings of the chement de cœur which is as natural to us as perils which his enormities are preparing for the air we breathe. Hence when foreigners him. We shall never hesitate to tell King read, in any of our more popular or widely circulated English journals, articles at all remarkable for opinion or expression, they are too apt to jump to the conclusion that these articles either indicate the secret designs or tendencies of Ministers, or at all events the deliberate feelings and policy of the nation. They read with deep interest and sanguine a time when such movements can be of no hopes the utterances of some warm-hearted writer with regard to the atrocities of King Bomba or the follies of Cardinal Antonelli ;they say to themselves judging by continental rules" this would not have appeared without some serious meaning, and scarcely without the permission of authority," - and Mazzini has just issued a proclamation to the what is merely the spontaneous sympathy of Neapolitans, urging them to rise, and promising an individual which he is certain will be shared that they shall be supported by a simultaneous by thousands, they interpret as encouragement rising in the North. Doubts have been given either by the Government or the nation. expressed as to the genuineness of this docuIn a great number of instances this is a ment. We wish we could share these doubts, complete misapprehension; and it is one which but they are not grounded. The proclamation it is important to set right, in order to prevent is authentic; and we should regard it as one mischief first, and reproach and disappoint- of the saddest blunders of a man whose blunment afterwards. We refer to this subject ders have done almost as much to mar the now, in consequence of finding that the re- Italian cause as his fiery zeal and indomitable marks which have appeared in the leading perseverance have done to aid it,-were it journal and in our own columns, holding up not that we believe that the great agitator is the brutalities of the King of Naples to the now-like most who have followed a similar execration they deserve, have been represent- course— rather the led than the leader of the ed in some quarters and are regarded by some insurrectionary party. If King Ferdinand is hasty Italians as proofs that a rising and resist- playing the game of the patriots, this misance in that oppressed country would be wel- taken patriot seems to us to be playing ab comed and applauded, if not positively en-most as perversely the game of the despots.

Ferdinand that if his people do rise and dethrone and punish him, they will act and he will suffer justly ;-but neither shall we ever cease from urging Neapolitan patriots to endure and wait till the fit opportunity shall arise, and not to compromise their cause or ruin their prospects by popular movements at

avail. To be silent on the first head, would be to do a violence to our feelings of humanity and right for which we see no call:-to be silent on the second head, would be to countenance a delusion as to the fatal nature of which there can be no doubt whatever.

To incite a rising in Italy now, at a moment | recent events and declarations will have when the French troops still garrison Rome, awakened his Majesty of Naples. and when Austria has her vast armies on a What must awaken most alarm throughout war footing but not engaged in war, and when the small despotic courts of Italy is the posi her position would give her singular facility in tion, boldly assumed and gallantly kept by making her own terms with the Allies,-and Sardinia, fighting by the side of the allied when, moreover, vivid as are the sympathies Powers, admitted to their councils, and enof Englishmen with Italian wrongs, the policy titled to share in the consequences of their of England with reference to them is at best triumph. One of the permanent demands of undecided, this does, we confess, seem to us the Court of France is, that Italian soldiers, a folly so reckless as almost to verge upon a not foreign ones, should keep the peace there; crime. We know well how hard and cold it and Cavour is known to entertain the same seems to preach waiting and endurance under opinion as Gioberti, that a Piedmontese, not a sufferings which we ourselves would not tol- French garrison in Rome, should uphold the erate for an hour; but the movements of Pope. But we need not say that this idea is statesmen, and the advice they give to those contemplated with horror by the Papal Court who trust in them, ought to be governed by and its Minister, Antonelli, who would of prudence and foresight, not by feelings, how course greatly prefer Austrian soldiers to ever just, natural, vehement, and universal. either French or Piedmontese. But Austria's continued retention of so large a part of Italy it is impossible to prolong. She now holds Lombardy, the Duchies, Tuscany, and the Legations, by far the richest portions of the peninsula; an augmentation of Austrian power which, assumed under pretence of keeping down revolution, France and Eng land will not be likely long to tolerate. An arrangement must be come to at no distant period. And no arrangement is possible that does not restore something of independence and nationality to Italy.

From the Examiner, 29 Sept.
ITALY.

AN early rising in South Italy, against the intolerable and almost burlesque tyranny of King Bomba, would seem to be looked for both in France and in England. Yet we do not think the Neapolitans likely to do any thing rash. Revolutionary ideas and passions do not descend there to the mass of the population as in Tuscany and Rome. The men who lead and direct the liberal cause against Ferdinand and his police are educated persons, not ignorant of politics or of prospects, and they are not men to make both French and Austrians at once their enemies by an ill-advised or ill-timed insurrectionary movement.

It is the wish of the more rational of Italian patriots to wait for this. They cannot but see that in the war struggle of the day the West triumphs over the East, and is hourly taking ascendency from it; and that the end must be the increased power of England and France, if not in actual conquest or extension of territory, in certainly the power of dictat Some have sought to obviate this by resus- ing to imbecile tyrannies like those of Central citating the Muratist party; but it has receiv- and Southern Italy a system of at least hued no encouragement from France, while one mane and rational government. There may of its inevitable results, in alienating Sicily, be no doubt that, were Italy of one mind, and must make all Italian patriots averse to the were its millions to rise as one man, they notion. Napoleon the Third seems to have might even at this present hour secure readopted what has been the deliberate and spect, freedom, and independence for their sane conviction of all historians, that the minor country. But where is the hope or the possiBonapartist dynasties in different parts of bility of this? Mazzini, despite his energy Europe weakened instead of strengthening and honesty, has lost his influence. Nor has the main trunk of the dynasty in France; his watchword, Dio e Popolo, even the sway it and this conviction has actuated the Cabinet might have exercised some time back. Italian of the Tuileries in its dealings and its coun- democracy has found other watchwords and sels towards Spain and Italy. It would be other leaders. In a Mazzinian insurrection impossible for a government to take more we do not believe, and the middle and intellipains to conciliate the respect of all surround-gent classes are not at this moment ripe for ing countries, and at the same time to inspire any other. them with confidence, than France has done. Indeed this has perhaps been carried even too far. The Courts of Naples and Madrid have been too prone to derive from it the belief not only of impunity but of support from "THE Pasha means to travel!" The anFrance, and this has encouraged tyranny in nouncement creates no surprise, for Said Pasha the one, and attempts at it in the other. But is given to journeying, suddenly visiting parts

From The Spectator, 22 Sept.

SAID PASHA.

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